{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T14:58:58Z","timestamp":1776178738000,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,27]],"date-time":"2019-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61331016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61331016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urban areas are subject to subsidence due to varying natural and anthropogenic causes. Often, subsidence is interpreted and correlated to a single causal factor; however, subsidence is usually more complex. In this study, we adopt a new model to distinguish different causes of subsidence in urban areas based on complexity. Ascending and descending Sentinel-1 data were analyzed using permanent scatterer interferometry (PS-InSAR) and decomposed to estimate vertical velocity. The estimated velocity is correlated to potential causes of subsidence, and modeled using different weights, to extract the model with the highest correlations among subsidence. The model was tested in Alexandria City, Egypt, based on three potential causes of subsidence: rock type, former lakes and lagoons dewatering (FLLD), and built-up load (BL). Results of experiments on the tested area reveal singular patterns of causal factors of subsidence distributed across the northeast, northwest, central south, and parts of the city center, reflecting the rock type of those areas. Dual causes of subsidence are found in the southwest and some parts of the southeast as a contribution of rock type and FLLD, whereas the most complex causes of subsidence are found in the southeast of the city, as the newly built-up areas interact with the rock type and FLLD to form a complex subsidence regime. Those areas also show the highest subsidence values among all other parts of the city. The accuracy of the final model was confirmed using linear regression analysis, with an R2 value of 0.88.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11172014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,27]],"date-time":"2019-08-27T11:13:30Z","timestamp":1566904410000},"page":"2014","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["A Model for Complex Subsidence Causality Interpretation Based on PS-InSAR Cross-Heading Orbits Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2685-8948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bahaa","family":"Mohamadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping, and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430076, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1624-4697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timo","family":"Balz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping, and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430076, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1704-5937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Younes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geography and GIS department, Faculty of Arts, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Jin, M., Jing, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., Sun, W., Wei, J., and Chen, Y. (2019). Monitoring Land Subsidence in Wuhan City (China) using the SBAS-InSAR Method with Radarsat-2 Imagery Data. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030743"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado Blasco, J.M., Foumelis, M., Stewart, C., and Hooper, A. (2019). Measuring Urban Subsidence in the Rome Metropolitan Area (Italy) with Sentinel-1 SNAP-StaMPS Persistent Scatterer Interferometry. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11020129"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Zhang, Y., Zeng, R., Yang, Z., Chen, X., Zhao, F., and Meng, X. (2018). Detection of Land Subsidence Associated with Land Creation and Rapid Urbanization in the Chinese Loess Plateau Using Time Series InSAR: A Case Study of Lanzhou New District. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020270"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"88","article-title":"Clay distributions, grain sizes, sediment thicknesses, and compaction rates to interpret subsidence in Egypt\u2019s northern Nile Delta","volume":"293","author":"Stanley","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-15-1973-2015","article-title":"Detailed quantification of delta subsidence, compaction and interaction with man-made structures: The case of the NCA airport, France","volume":"15","author":"Sladen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., Ke, Y., Zhang, D., Chen, B., Gong, H., Lv, M., Zhu, L., and Li, X. (2018). Multi-Scale Analysis of the Relationship between Land Subsidence and Buildings: A Case Study in an Eastern Beijing Urban Area Using the PS-InSAR Technique. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071006"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"309","article-title":"Growth faults, a distinct carbonate-siliciclastic interface and recent coastal evolution, NW Nile Delta, Egypt","volume":"21","author":"Stanley","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seleem, T.A., Stergiopoulos, V., Kourkouli, P., Perrou, T., and Parcharidis, I. (2017, January 3). Correlation between land cover and ground vulnerability in Alexandria City (Egypt) using time series SAR interferometry and optical Earth observation data. Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Remote Seising, Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2277951"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2009.09.009","article-title":"Building damage risk assessment on mining terrains in Poland with GIS application","volume":"47","author":"Malinowska","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.038","article-title":"Land subsidence in central Mexico detected by ALOS InSAR time-series","volume":"140","author":"Chaussard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.18268\/BSGM2013v65n1a10","article-title":"Analysis and simulation of regional subsidence accompanying groundwater abstraction and compaction of susceptible aquifer systems in the USA","volume":"65","author":"Galloway","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn de la Sociedad Geol\u00f3gica Mexicana"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mexico City subsidence observed with persistent scatterer InSAR","volume":"13","author":"Dixon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-1902-8","article-title":"Land subsidence caused by the interaction of high-rise buildings in soft soil areas","volume":"79","author":"Cui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bozzano, F., Esposito, C., Mazzanti, P., Patti, M., and Scancella, S. (2018). Imaging Multi-Age Construction Settlement Behaviour by Advanced SAR Interferometry. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071137"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferretti, A. (2001). Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 39.","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nolesini, T., Frodella, W., Bianchini, S., and Casagli, N. (2016). Detecting Slope and Urban Potential Unstable Areas by Means of Multi-Platform Remote Sensing Techniques: The Volterra (Italy) Case Study. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090746"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2953","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50568","article-title":"Is land subsidence increasing the exposure to sea level rise in Alexandria, Egypt?","volume":"40","author":"Raucoules","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Copernicus (2018). Sentinel-1 2016\u20132017 data processed by ESA."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"337","article-title":"Human impact on sediment mass movement and submergence of ancient sites in the two harbours of Alexandria, Egypt","volume":"86","author":"Stanley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nor. J. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"26","article-title":"Late Quaternary Evolution of the Northwest Nile Delta and Adjacent Coast in the Alexandria Region, Egypt","volume":"9","author":"Warne","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.05.028","article-title":"Gmes sentinel-1 mission","volume":"120","author":"Torres","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2220","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2497902","article-title":"Interferometric processing of sentinel-1 tops data","volume":"54","author":"Brcic","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Perissin, D., Wang, Z.Y., and Wang, T. (2011, January 10\u201315). The SarProZ InSAR tool for urban subsidence\/manmade structure stability monitoring in China. Proceedings of the ISRSE, Sydney Australia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2250","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JB000283","article-title":"Three-dimensional surface motion maps estimated from combined interferometric synthetic aperture Radar and GPS data","volume":"107","author":"Gudmundsson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Spata, A., Guglielmino, F., Nunnari, G., and Puglisi, G. (December, January 30). SISTEM: A new approach to obtain three-dimensional displacement maps by integrating GPS and DInSAR data. Proceedings of the Fringe Workshop, Frascati, Italy."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Pepe, A. (2009). Advanced Differential Interferometric SAR Techniques, the Extended Minimum Cost Flow Phase Unwrapping (EMCF) Technique. Saarbrucken, VDM Verlang."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuhrmann, T., and Garthwaite, M.C. (2019). Resolving Three-Dimensional Surface Motion with InSAR: Constraints from Multi-Geometry Data Fusion. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030241"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Thienenvisser, K.V., Muntendambos, A.G., Samieiesfahany, S., and Hansen, R.F. (December, January 30). On the effect of horizontal deformation on insar subsidence estimates. Proceedings of the Fringe 2009 Workshop, Frascati, Italy."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepe, A., and Cal\u00f2, F. (2017). A Review of Interferometric Synthetic Aperture RADAR (InSAR) Multi-Track Approaches for the Retrieval of Earth\u2019s Surface Displacements. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7121264"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/02665439508725818","article-title":"The historical evolution and present morphology of Alexandria, Egypt","volume":"10","year":"1995","journal-title":"Plan. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-010-9977-4","article-title":"A global ranking of port cities with high exposure to climate extremes","volume":"104","author":"Hanson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.2112\/08-0013.1","article-title":"Ancient archaeological sites buried and submerged along Egypt\u2019s Nile delta coast: Gauges of Holocene delta margin subsidence","volume":"25","author":"Stanley","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026015824714","article-title":"The Nile delta-Alexandria coast: Vulnerability to sea-level rise, consequences and adaptation","volume":"8","author":"Frihy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/17\/2014\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:14:25Z","timestamp":1760188465000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/17\/2014"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,27]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11172014"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11172014","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,27]]}}}