{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T03:58:12Z","timestamp":1769572692358,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]],"date-time":"2019-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1568332800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP 17H03898"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP 17H03898"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An image fusion method has been proposed for plant images taken using a two-dimensional (2D) camera and three-dimensional (3D) portable lidar for obtaining a 3D distribution of physiological and biochemical plant properties. In this method, a 2D multispectral camera with five bands (475\u2013840 nm) and a 3D high-resolution portable scanning lidar were applied to three sets of sample trees. After producing vegetation index (VI) images from multispectral images, 3D point cloud lidar data were projected onto the 2D plane based on perspective projection, keeping the depth information of each of the lidar points. The VI images were 2D registered to the lidar projected image based on the projective transformation and VI 3D point cloud images were reconstructed based on the depth information. Based on the relationship between the VI values and chlorophyll contents taken by a soil and plant analysis development (SPAD)-502 plus chlorophyll meter, 3D distribution images of the chlorophyll contents were produced. Similarly, a thermal 3D image for a sample was also produced. The resultant chlorophyll distribution images offered vertical and horizontal distributions, and those for each orientation for each sample, showing the spatial variability of the distribution and the difference between the samples.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11182134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]],"date-time":"2019-09-13T10:32:41Z","timestamp":1568370761000},"page":"2134","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Estimating 3D Chlorophyll Content Distribution of Trees Using an Image Fusion Method Between 2D Camera and 3D Portable Scanning Lidar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Fumiki","family":"Hosoi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan"}]},{"given":"Sho","family":"Umeyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan"}]},{"given":"Kuangting","family":"Kuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.2307\/1941934","article-title":"Seasonal patterns and remote spectral estimation of canopy chemistry across the Oregon transect","volume":"4","author":"Matson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2008.03.005","article-title":"Estimating chlorophyll content from hyperspectral vegetation indices: Modeling and validation","volume":"148","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1997","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.9399","article-title":"Rapid prediction of chlorophylls and carotenoids content in tea leaves under different levels of nitrogen application based on hyperspectral imaging","volume":"99","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/erf083","article-title":"Use of infrared thermography for monitoring stomatal closure in the field: Application to grapevine","volume":"53","author":"Jones","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2013.11.010","article-title":"Validation of thermal indices for water status identification in grapevine","volume":"134","author":"Pou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agr. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eja.2019.01.010","article-title":"Transpiration from canopy temperature: Implications for the assessment of crop yield in almond orchards","volume":"105","author":"Espadafor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Agron."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.84.3.748","article-title":"Image analysis of chlorophyll fluorescence transients for diagnosing the photosynthetic system of attached leaves","volume":"84","author":"Omasa","year":"1987","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1071\/PP9950277","article-title":"Quantitative mapping of leaf photosynthesis using chlorophyll fluorescence imaging","volume":"22","author":"Genty","year":"1994","journal-title":"Funct. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1139\/x03-225","article-title":"Assessing forest metrics with a ground-based scanning lidar","volume":"34","author":"Hopkinson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2004.02.008","article-title":"Measurement of forest canopy structure by a laser plane range-finding method improvement of radiative resolution and examples of its application","volume":"125","author":"Tanaka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3610","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.881743","article-title":"Voxel-based 3-D modeling of individual trees for estimating leaf area density using high-resolution portable scanning lidar","volume":"44","author":"Hosoi","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3464","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/erm203","article-title":"Factors contributing to accuracy in the estimation of the woody canopy leaf-area-density profile using 3D portable lidar imaging","volume":"58","author":"Hosoi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.04.011","article-title":"3-D voxel-based solid modeling of a broad-leaved tree for accurate volume estimation using portable scanning lidar","volume":"82","author":"Hosoi","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.03.011","article-title":"Rapid measurement of the three-dimensional distribution of leaf orientation and the leaf angle probability density function using terrestrial LiDAR scanning","volume":"194","author":"Bailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Itakura, K., and Hosoi, F. (2019). Estimation of leaf inclination angle in three-dimensional plant images obtained from lidar. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030344"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, X., Feng, J., Guan, H., and Liu, G. (2018). Prediction of chlorophyll content in different lightareas of apple tree canopies based on the color characteristics of 3D reconstruction. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030429"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.04.025","article-title":"Simultaneous measurements of plant structure and chlorophyll content in broadleaf saplings with a terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"114","author":"Eitel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2011.05.015","article-title":"Early season remote sensing of wheat nitrogen status using a green scanning laser","volume":"151","author":"Eitel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.02.001","article-title":"Multi-wavelength canopy LiDAR for remote sensing of vegetation: Design and system performance","volume":"69","author":"Wei","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2014.08.018","article-title":"Fast and nondestructive method for leaf level chlorophyll estimation using hyperspectral LiDAR","volume":"198-199","author":"Nevalainen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-12-1629-2015","article-title":"Technical note: Multispectral lidar time series of pine canopy chlorophyll content","volume":"12","author":"Hakala","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biogeoscience"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Junttila, S., Vastaranta, M., Liang, X., Kaartinen, H., Kukko, A., Kaasalainen, S., Holopainen, M., Hyypp\u00e4, H., and Hyypp\u00e4, J. (2016). Measuring leaf water content with dual-wavelength intensity data from terrestrial laser scanners. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010008"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2018.06.019","article-title":"Application of spectral indices and reflectance spectrum on leaf nitrogen content analysis derived from hyperspectral LiDAR data","volume":"107","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/erl142","article-title":"3D lidar imaging for detecting and understanding plant responses and canopy structure","volume":"58","author":"Omasa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1071\/FP09108","article-title":"3D monitoring spatio\u2013temporal effects of herbicide on a whole plant using combined range and chlorophyll a fluorescence imaging","volume":"36","author":"Konishi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Funct. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, H., Liu, M., Ma, X., and Yu, S. (2018). Three-dimensional reconstruction of soybean canopies using multisource imaging for phenotyping analysis. Sensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081206"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2016.10.012","article-title":"LiDAR and thermal images fusion for ground-based 3D characterisation of fruit trees","volume":"151","author":"Prieto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.1986.276672","article-title":"Survey of texture mapping","volume":"6","author":"Heckbert","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Haeberli, P., and Segal, M. (1993, January 14\u201316). Texture mapping as a fundamental drawing primitive. Proceedings of the Fourth Eurographics Workshop on Rendering, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00072-7","article-title":"Use of a green channel in remote sensing of global vegetation from EOS-MODIS","volume":"58","author":"Gitelson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Nieto, J.I., Monteiro, S.T., and Viejo, D. (2010, January 25\u201330). Global vision for local action. In Proceeding of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Relationships between chlorophyll meterreadings and leaf chlorophyll concentration, N status, and crop yield: A review","volume":"23","author":"Wood","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc. Agron. Soc. NZ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00032301","article-title":"Calibration of the Minolta SPAD-502 leafchlorophyll meter","volume":"46","author":"Markwell","year":"1995","journal-title":"Photosynth. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2005.08.013","article-title":"Photosynthetic and structural characteristics of canopy and shrub trees in a cool-temperate deciduous broadleaved forest: Implication to the ecosystem carbon gain","volume":"134","author":"Muraoka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agric. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2014.01.002","article-title":"Chlorophyll content mapping of urban vegetation in the city of Valencia based on the hyperspectral NAOC index","volume":"40","author":"Delegido","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2017.08.018","article-title":"Modelling the effects of post-heading heat stress on biomass growth of winter wheat","volume":"247","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dou, Z., Cui, L., Li, J., Zhu, Y., Gao, C., Pan, X., Lei, Y., Zhang, M., Zhao, X., and Li, W. (2018). Hyperspectral estimation of the chlorophyll content in short-term and long-term restorations of mangrove in Quanzhou Bay Estuary, China. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10041127"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/21.12-13.951","article-title":"Leaf morphology and photosynthetic adjustments among deciduous broad-leaved trees within the vertical canopy profile","volume":"21","author":"Koike","year":"2001","journal-title":"Tree Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/26.7.865","article-title":"Changes in photosynthesis and leaf characteristics with tree height in five dipterocarp species in a tropical rain forest","volume":"26","author":"Kenzo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tree Physiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3390\/s8010051","article-title":"Changes in spectral properties, chlorophyll content and internal mesophyll structure of senescing Populus balsamifera and Populus tremuloides Leaves","volume":"8","author":"Castro","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1071\/FP11248","article-title":"Tree age-related effects on sun acclimated leaves in a chronosequence of beech (Fagus sylvatica) stands","volume":"39","author":"Louis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Funct. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1080\/14620316.2004.11511867","article-title":"Photosynthetic enzymes and carbohydrate metabolism of apple leaves in response to nitrogen limitation","volume":"79","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hortic. Sci. Biotech."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1007\/s00468-018-1712-1","article-title":"Morpho-physiological responses of Nothofagus obliqua to light intensity and water status, with focus on primary growth dynamics","volume":"32","author":"Torres","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trees"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s00468-018-1753-5","article-title":"Light deficiency and waterlogging affect chlorophyll metabolism and photosynthesis in Magnolia sinostellata","volume":"33","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trees"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/tps112","article-title":"Electron transport efficiency at opposite leaf sides: Effect of vertical distribution of leaf angle, structure, chlorophyll content and species in a forest canopy","volume":"33","author":"Hallik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tree Physiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3040.1997.d01-95.x","article-title":"Acclimation of photosynthesis to irradiance and spectral quality in British plant species: Chlorophyll content, photosynthetic capacity and habitat preference","volume":"20","author":"Murchie","year":"1997","journal-title":"Plant Cell Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3040.2003.01017.x","article-title":"Increases of chlorophyll a\/b ratios during acclimation of tropical woody seedlings to nitrogen limitation and high light","volume":"26","author":"Kitajima","year":"2003","journal-title":"Plant Cell Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1093\/treephys\/tpu104","article-title":"Morphological, biochemical and physiological traits of upper and lower canopy leaves of European beech tend to converge with increasing altitude","volume":"35","author":"Klem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tree Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.112.4.1403","article-title":"Chlorophyll breakdown in senescent leaves","volume":"112","author":"Matile","year":"1996","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.06.035","article-title":"Canopy gaps affect long-term patterns of tree growth and mortality in mature and old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest","volume":"281","author":"Gray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2015.12.024","article-title":"Canopy gaps affect the shape of Douglas-fir crowns in the western Cascades, Oregon","volume":"363","author":"Seidel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forest Ecol Manag."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/18\/2134\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:19:51Z","timestamp":1760188791000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/18\/2134"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11182134"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11182134","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]]}}}