{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T20:02:26Z","timestamp":1774641746160,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]],"date-time":"2019-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004543","name":"China Scholarship Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201706260149"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201706260149"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004543","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program)","award":["2013CB733304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2013CB733304"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41674003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41674003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multi-temporal interferometric synthetic aperture radar (MT-InSAR) can be applied to monitor the structural health of infrastructure such as railways, bridges, and highways. However, for the successful interpretation of the observed deformation within a structure, or between structures, it is imperative to associate a radar scatterer unambiguously with an actual physical object. Unfortunately, the limited positioning accuracy of the radar scatterers hampers this attribution, which limits the applicability of MT-InSAR. In this study, we propose an approach for health monitoring of railway system combining MT-InSAR and LiDAR (laser scanning) data. An amplitude-augmented interferometric processing approach is applied to extract continuously coherent scatterers (CCS) and temporary coherent scatterers (TCS), and estimate the parameters of interest. Based on the 3D confidence ellipsoid and a decorrelation transformation, all radar scatterers are linked to points in the point cloud and their coordinates are corrected as well. Additionally, several quality metrics defined using both the covariance matrix and the radar geometry are introduced to evaluate the results. Experimental results show that most radar scatterers match well with laser points and that LiDAR data are valuable as auxiliary data to classify the radar scatterers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11192298","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]],"date-time":"2019-10-02T08:17:54Z","timestamp":1570004274000},"page":"2298","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["Monitoring Deformation along Railway Systems Combining Multi-Temporal InSAR and LiDAR Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6911-1073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fengming","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"},{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2582-9267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Freek J. van","family":"Leijen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8212-7221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ling","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Jicang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6067-7561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramon F.","family":"Hanssen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R.F. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Ferretti, A., Prati, C., and Rocca, F. (July, January 28). Permanent Scatterers in SAR Interferometry. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent Scatterers in SAR Interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2446","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.835222","article-title":"Ambiguity Resolution for Permanent Scatterer Interferometry","volume":"42","author":"Kampes","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L23611","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021737","article-title":"A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other non-urban areas using InSAR persistent scatterers","volume":"31","author":"Hooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Van Leijen, F.J. (2014). Persistent Scatterer Interferometry Based on Geodetic Estimation Theory, NCG."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2646","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-39474-x","article-title":"sub-seasonal Levee Deformation observed Using satellite Radar Interferometry to enhance Flood protection","volume":"9","author":"Rikkert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Applicability of satellite radar imaging to monitor the conditions of levees","volume":"12509","author":"Jonkman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2010.2046883","article-title":"Time-series InSAR applications over urban areas in China","volume":"4","author":"Perissin","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2869","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2014.2343915","article-title":"Persistent scatterer pair interferometry: Approach and application to COSMO-SkyMed SAR data","volume":"7","author":"Costantini","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2628867","article-title":"Monitoring ground subsidence along the Shanghai Maglev zone using TerraSAR-X images","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2584783","article-title":"Nationwide railway monitoring using satellite SAR interferometry","volume":"10","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Chang, L., and Markine, V. (2018). Structural health monitoring of railway transition zones using satellite radar data. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020413"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.04.051","article-title":"Non-contact measurement of the dynamic displacement of railway bridges using an advanced video-based system","volume":"75","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1243\/0954409JRRT51","article-title":"Monitoring the dynamic displacements of railway track","volume":"221","author":"Bowness","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.548-549.683","article-title":"Development of a railway track displacement monitoring by using digital image correlation technique","volume":"548","author":"Iryani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-015-0883-4","article-title":"High-precision positioning of radar scatterers","volume":"90","author":"Dheenathayalan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Yang, M., Dheenathayalan, P., Chang, L., Wang, J., Lindenbergh, R.C., Liao, M., and Hanssen, R.F. (2016, January 9\u201313). High-precision 3D geolocation of persistent scatterers with one single-Epoch GCP and LIDAR DSM data. Proceedings of the ESA Living Planet Symposium 2016, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-017-1041-y","article-title":"InSAR datum connection using GNSS-augmented radar transponders","volume":"92","author":"Mahapatra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Van Natijne, A. (2018). Locating PS-InSAR Derived Deformation Using LiDAR Point Clouds. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Delft University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"2","article-title":"Massive linking of PS-InSAR deformations to a national airborne laser point cloud","volume":"42","author":"Lindenbergh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6841","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2844108","article-title":"3-D Positioning and Target Association for Medium-Resolution SAR Sensors","volume":"56","author":"Dheenathayalan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6703","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2731424","article-title":"Small reflectors for ground motion monitoring with InSAR","volume":"55","author":"Dheenathayalan","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ferretti, A., Colesanti, C., Perissin, D., Prati, C., and Rocca, F. (2003, January 1\u20135). Evaluating the effect of the observation time on the distribution of SAR Permanent Scatterers. Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on ERS SAR Interferometry, \u2018FRINGE03\u2019, Frascati, Italy."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4043","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.906092","article-title":"Urban-Target Recognition by Means of Repeated Spaceborne SAR Images","volume":"45","author":"Perissin","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zhang, L. (2012). Temporarily Coherent Point SAR Interferometry. [Ph.D. Thesis, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7658","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2915658","article-title":"Incorporating Temporary Coherent Scatterers in Multi-Temporal InSAR Using Adaptive Temporal Subsets","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.05.006","article-title":"Measuring thermal expansion using X-band persistent scatterer interferometry","volume":"100","author":"Crosetto","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2459037","article-title":"A probabilistic approach for InSAR time-series postprocessing","volume":"54","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2011.2119463","article-title":"The thermal expansion component of persistent scatterer interferometry observations","volume":"8","author":"Monserrat","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.2514\/1.15905","article-title":"New global navigation satellite system ambiguity resolution method compared to existing approaches","volume":"29","author":"Verhagen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Guid. Control Dyn."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868878","article-title":"Nonlinear Subsidence Rate Estimation using Permanent Scatterers in Differential SAR Interferometry","volume":"38","author":"Ferretti","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baarda, W. (1981). S-Transformations and Criterion Matrices, Netherlands Geodetic Commission. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.54419\/r87y08"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Kampes, B.M. (2006). Radar Interferometry, Springer."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/641706","article-title":"Improved Qrginv algorithm for computing Moore-Penrose inverse matrices","volume":"2014","author":"Ataei","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISRN Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Johnson, R.A., and Wichern, D.W. (2002). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montazeri, S., Rodr\u00edguez Gonz\u00e1lez, F., and Zhu, X. (2018). Geocoding Error Correction for InSAR Point Clouds. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101523"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Schreier, G. (1993). SAR Geocoding: Data and Systems, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.10242","article-title":"Requirements for a cocitation similarity measure, with special reference to Pearson\u2019s correlation coefficient","volume":"54","author":"Ahlgren","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Adam, N., Kampes, B.M., and Eineder, M. (2004, January 6\u201310). Development of a scientific Persistent Scatterer System: Modifications for mixed ERS\/ENVISAT time series. Proceedings of the ENVISAT & ERS Symposium, Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Stansbury, D. (2019, March 30). The Statistical Whitening Transform. Available online: https:\/\/theclevermachine.wordpress.com\/tag\/eigenvalue decomposition."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1145\/355744.355745","article-title":"An algorithm for finding best matches in logarithmic expected time","volume":"3","author":"Finkel","year":"1977","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Math. Softw."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2803074","article-title":"Monitoring line-infrastructure with multisensor SAR interferometry: Products and performance assessment metrics","volume":"11","author":"Chang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2018, October 30). KNMI. Available online: http:\/\/projects.knmi.nl\/klimatologie\/uurgegevens."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Kadaster, and Geonovum (2018, November 30). Publieke Dienstverlening Op de Kaart (PDOK). Available online: https:\/\/www.pdok.nl\/."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Bruijne, A., van Buren, J., K\u00f6sters, A., and van der Marel, H. (2005). Geodetic Reference Frames in The Netherlands. Definition and Specification of ETRS89, RD and NAP, and Their Mutual Relationships, Netherlands Geodetic Commission.","DOI":"10.54419\/VY3C94"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/19\/2298\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:26:58Z","timestamp":1760189218000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/19\/2298"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11192298"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11192298","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]}}}