{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T13:57:37Z","timestamp":1780063057123,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,10]],"date-time":"2019-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1570665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC17K0022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC17K0022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Precipitation infiltrates into basal shearing zones, triggering seasonal landslide motion by increasing pore-pressure and reducing shear resistance. This process is jointly controlled by basal depth, rainfall intensity, soil moisture, and hydraulic conductivity\/diffusivity. Using interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), we detected and mapped a slow-moving slide in the southwestern Oregon. Its basal depths are estimated using InSAR-derived surface velocity fields based on the mass conservation approach by assuming a power-law rheology. The estimated maximum thickness over the central region of the landslide is 6.9 \u00b1 2.6 m. This result is further confirmed by an independent limit equilibrium analysis that solely relies on soil mechanical properties. By incorporating satellites-captured time lags of 27\u201349 days between the onset of wet seasons and the initiation of landslide motions, the averaged characteristic hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity of the landslide material is estimated as 1.2 \u00d7 10\u22125 m\/s and 1.9 \u00d7 10\u22124 m2\/s, respectively. Our investigation layouts a framework for using InSAR and satellite-sensed soil moisture to infer landslide basal geometry and estimate corresponding hydraulic parameters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11202347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,11]],"date-time":"2019-10-11T03:07:11Z","timestamp":1570763231000},"page":"2347","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Characterizing Seasonally Rainfall-Driven Movement of a Translational Landslide using SAR Imagery and SMAP Soil Moisture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Yuankun","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9097-2465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinwoo","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David L.","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Vancouver, WA 98683, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9181-1818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhong","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.10.022","article-title":"The 22 March 2014 Oso landslide, Washington, USA","volume":"253","author":"Wartman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2014.12.020","article-title":"Landslide mobility and hazards: Implications of the 2014 Oso disaster","volume":"412","author":"Iverson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planet Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1952","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1098821","article-title":"Dynamics of slow-moving landslides from permanent scatterer analysis","volume":"304","author":"Hilley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.09.008","article-title":"Active movement of the Cascade landslide complex in Washington from a coherence-based InSAR time series method","volume":"186","author":"Tong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"253","article-title":"Using advanced InSAR time series techniques to monitor landslide movements in Badong of the Three Gorges region, China","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s12303-013-0053-8","article-title":"Detection of vertical slope movement in highly vegetated tropical area of Gunung pass landslide, Malaysia, using L-band InSAR technique","volume":"18","author":"Jebur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosci. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.11.031","article-title":"Landslide deformation monitoring with ALOS\/PALSAR imagery: A D-InSAR geomorphological interpretation method","volume":"231","author":"Doubre","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-675-2014","article-title":"Landslide observation and volume estimation in central Georgia based on L-band InSAR","volume":"14","author":"Nikolaeva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL062688","article-title":"Landslide subsurface slip geometry inferred from 3-D surface displacement fields","volume":"42","author":"Aryal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4299","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50828","article-title":"Landslide velocity, thickness, and rheology from remote sensing: La Clapi\u00e8re landslide, France","volume":"40","author":"Booth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1987)99<579:RGFASM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Rainfall, ground-water flow, and seasonal movement at Minor Creek landslide, northwestern California: Physical interpretation of empirical relations","volume":"99","author":"Iverson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1086\/629714","article-title":"A pore-pressure diffusion model for estimating landslide-inducing rainfall","volume":"102","author":"Reid","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1130\/REG10-p79","article-title":"Geology, hydrology, and mechanics of a slow-moving","volume":"10","author":"Baum","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clay Shale Slope Instab."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1126","article-title":"Landslide hydrology: From hydrology to pore pressure","volume":"3","author":"Bogaard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wires Water"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berti, M., and Simoni, A. (2010). Field evidence of pore pressure diffusion in clayey soils prone to landsliding. J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JF001463"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2187","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7981","article-title":"Observation and analysis of near-surface pore-pressure measurements in clay-shales slopes","volume":"26","author":"Berti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1029\/2000WR900090","article-title":"Landslide triggering by rain infiltration","volume":"36","author":"Iverson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rutt, I.C., Hagdorn, M., Hulton, N.R.J., and Payne, A.J. (2009). The Glimmer community ice sheet model. J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JF001015"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Burns, W.J. (2019, March 30). Statewide Landslide Information Database for Oregon [SLIDO], Release 3.2: Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Geodatabase. Available online: http:\/\/www.oregongeology.org\/sub\/slido."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Werner, C., Wegm\u00fcller, U., Strozzi, T., and Wiesmann, A. (2000, January 16\u201320). Gamma SAR and interferometric processing software. Proceedings of the ERS-ENVISAT Symposium, Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3951","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012559","article-title":"Three-dimensional surface deformation derived from airborne interferometric UAVSAR: Application to the Slumgullion Landslide","volume":"121","author":"Delbridge","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL076623","article-title":"Combining InSAR and GPS to Determine Transient Movement and Thickness of a Seasonally Active Low-Gradient Translational Landslide","volume":"45","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2010.01.003","article-title":"Advanced low-and full-resolution DInSAR map generation for slow-moving landslide analysis at different scales","volume":"112","author":"Cascini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Grant, M., Boyd, S., and Ye, Y. (2019, April 01). CVX: Matlab Software for Disciplined Convex Programming. Available online: http:\/\/cvxr.com\/cvx\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.2113\/gseegeosci.17.4.315","article-title":"Landslide stability: Role of rainfall-induced, laterally propagating, pore-pressure waves","volume":"17","author":"Priest","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x","article-title":"A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils","volume":"44","year":"1980","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1029\/WR012i003p00513","article-title":"A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media","volume":"12","author":"Mualem","year":"1976","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehmann, P., and Or, D. (2012). Hydromechanical triggering of landslides: From progressive local failures to mass release. Water Resour. Res., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010947"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"37","article-title":"Hydraulic Properties of Porous Media","volume":"Volume 24","author":"Brooks","year":"1964","journal-title":"Hydrology Papers 3"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"USDA (2019, April 01). Soil Survey of Curry County, Oregon, Available online: https:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/Internet\/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS\/oregon\/OR015\/0\/Curry.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"USDA (2019, March 25). National Cooperative Soil Survey Soil Characterization Data, Available online: https:\/\/ncsslabdatamart.sc.egov.usda.gov."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2015.02.0067","article-title":"Saturated hydraulic conductivity of US soils grouped according to textural class and bulk density","volume":"79","author":"Pachepsky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Wasowski, J. (1998, January 21\u201325). Inclinometer and piezometer record of the 1995 reactivation of the Acquara-Vadoncello landslide, Italy. Proceedings of the Engineering Geology: A global view from the Pacific Rim, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Gould, J.P. (1960, January 13\u201317). A study of shear failure in certain Tertiary marine sediments. Proceedings of the Research Conference on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, Boulder, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mainsant, G., Larose, E., Br\u00f6nnimann, C., Jongmans, D., Michoud, C., and Jaboyedoff, M. (2012). Ambient seismic noise monitoring of a clay landslide: Toward failure prediction. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JF002159"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1086\/628937","article-title":"A constitutive equation for mass-movement behavior","volume":"93","author":"Iverson","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-739-2009","article-title":"The effect of groundwater fluctuations on the velocity pattern of slow-moving landslides","volume":"9","author":"Malet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Malet, J.P., and Maquaire, O. (2003, January 14\u201316). Black marl earthflows mobility and long-term seasonal dynamic in southeastern France. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Fast Slope Movements, Naples, Italy."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, N., Godt, J.W., and Wu, D.T. (2010). A closed-form equation for effective stress in unsaturated soil. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008646"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.33720","article-title":"Estimation of soil water properties","volume":"25","author":"Rawls","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Hall, D.E., Long, M.T., and Remboldt, M.D. (1994). Slope Stability Reference Guide for National Forests in the United States."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Alto, J.V. (1981). Engineering Properties of Oregon and Washington Coast Range Soils. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Oregon State University]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"MnDOT (Minnesota Department of Transportation) (2019, April 05). MnDOT Pavement Design Manual, Available online: http:\/\/www.dot.state.mn.us\/materials\/pvmtdesign\/docs\/2007manual\/Chapter_3-2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2017-0451","article-title":"Effective friction angle of clays and silts from piezocone penetration tests","volume":"55","author":"Ouyang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeong, S., Lee, K., Kim, J., and Kim, Y. (2017). Analysis of rainfall-induced landslide on unsaturated soil slopes. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9071280"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Thunder, B. (2016). The Hydro-Mechanical Analysis of an Infiltration-Induced Landslide Along I-70 in Summit County, CO, Colorado School of Mines."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Msilimba, G.G.A.C. (2007). A Comparative Study of Landslides and Geohazard Mitigation in Northern and Central Malawi. [Doctor\u2019s Dissertation, University of the Free State]."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Lambe, T.W., and Whitman, R.V. (2008). Soil Mechanics Si Version, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madson, A., Fielding, E., Sheng, Y., and Cavanaugh, K. (2019). High-Resolution Spaceborne, Airborne and in Situ Landslide Kinematic Measurements of the Slumgullion Landslide in Southwest Colorado. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030265"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Rosen, P.A., Hensley, S., Wheeler, K., Sadowy, G., Miller, T., Shaffer, S., Muellerschoen, R., Jones, C., Zebker, H., and Madsen, S. (2006, January 24\u201327). UAVSAR: A new NASA airborne SAR system for science and technology research. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Conference on Radar, Verona, NY, USA, USA."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1126\/science.290.5491.513","article-title":"Acute sensitivity of landslide rates to initial soil porosity","volume":"290","author":"Iverson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/20\/2347\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:29:05Z","timestamp":1760189345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/20\/2347"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,10]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11202347"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11202347","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,10]]}}}