{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:11:54Z","timestamp":1760191914651,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,18]],"date-time":"2019-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1574035200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFC1503600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1503600"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China","award":["41525014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41525014"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Innovation Group Foundation of China","award":["41721003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41721003"]}]},{"name":"Major Technology Innovation Project of Hubei Province of China","award":["2018AAA066"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018AAA066"]}]},{"name":"Youth Fund of the National Natural Science Fund project","award":["41704030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41704030"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multi-frequency and multi-GNSS integration is currently becoming an important trend in the development of satellite navigation and positioning technology. In this paper, GPS\/Galileo\/BeiDou (BDS) precise point positioning (PPP) with ambiguity resolution (AR) are discussed in detail. The mathematical model of triple-system PPP AR and the principle of fractional cycle bias (FCB) estimation are firstly described. With the data of 160 stations in Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) from day of year (DOY) 321-350, 2018, the FCBs of the three systems are estimated and the experimental results show that the range of most GPS wide-lane (WL) FCB is within 0.1 cycles during one month, while that of Galileo WL FCB is 0.05 cycles. For BDS FCB, the classification estimation method is used to estimate the BDS FCB and divide it into GEO and non-GEO (IGSO and MEO) FCB. The variation range of BDS GEO WL FCB can reach 0.5 cycles, while BDS non-GEO WL FCB does not exceed 0.1 cycles within a month. However, the accuracies of GPS, Galileo, and BDS non-GEO narrow-lane (NL) FCB are basically the same. In addition, the number of visible satellites and Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP) values of different combined systems are analyzed and evaluated in this paper. It shows that the triple-system combination can significantly increase the number of observable satellites, optimize the spatial distribution structure of satellites, and is significantly superior to the dual-system and single-system. Finally, the positioning characteristics of single-, dual-, and triple-systems are analyzed. The results of the single station positioning experiment show that the accuracy and convergence speed of the fixed solutions for each system are better than those of the corresponding float solutions. The average root mean squares (RMSs) of the float and the fixed solution in the east and north direction for GPS\/Galileo\/BDS combined system are the smallest, being 0.92 cm, 0.52 cm and 0.50 cm, 0.46 cm respectively, while the accuracy of the GPS in the up direction is the highest, which is 1.44 cm and 1.27 cm, respectively. Therefore, the combined system can accelerate the convergence speed and greatly enhance the stability of the positioning results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11222693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,18]],"date-time":"2019-11-18T11:18:48Z","timestamp":1574075928000},"page":"2693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Modeling and Assessment of GPS\/Galileo\/BDS Precise Point Positioning with Ambiguity Resolution"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Xuexi","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Weiping","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Ruijie","family":"Xi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Nottingham Geospatial Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4361-5545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wen","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Chuanfeng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Xingyu","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03860","article-title":"Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks","volume":"102","author":"Zumberge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. 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