{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:50:14Z","timestamp":1760241014777,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,21]],"date-time":"2019-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1574294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41804021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41804021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003453","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017A030310242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017A030310242"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003453","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gravity waves (GWs) generated in the lower atmosphere can propagate upwards to ionospheric height. In this study, we investigated the correlation between ionospheric GWs detected by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-derived total electron content data and thunderstorm events recorded by a local lightning-detection network in the low-latitude region of Southern China during a four-year period, from 2014 to 2017. Ionospheric GWs were detected on both thunderstorm and non-thunderstorm days. Daytime ionospheric GW activity on high-thunderstorm days showed a similar convex-function-like diurnal variation to thunderstorm activity, which is different to the concave-function-like pattern on non-thunderstorm days. Daytime ionospheric GW activity on low-thunderstorm days showed an approximately linear rising trend and was of a larger magnitude than that of high-thunderstorm days, suggesting it may be mixed by non-thunderstorm origins. Night-time enhancement of ionospheric GW activity was observed on thunderstorm days but not on non-thunderstorm days. Furthermore, ionospheric GW activity on thunderstorm days showed a positive correlation to solar activity. These findings can effectively distinguish thunderstorm-related ionospheric GWs from those of non-thunderstorm origins and provide more comprehensive knowledge of thunderstorm\u2013ionosphere coupling in low-latitude areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11232732","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,22]],"date-time":"2019-11-22T02:49:27Z","timestamp":1574390967000},"page":"2732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Statistical Observation of Thunderstorm-Induced Ionospheric Gravity Waves above Low-Latitude Areas in the Northern Hemisphere"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2476-8420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Long","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"},{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"given":"Wu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"given":"Mingli","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0332-2254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Osei-Poku","family":"Louis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Nappo, C.J. (2002). An Introduction to Atmospheric Gravity Waves, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medeiros, A.F., Taylor, M.J., Takahashi, H., Batista, P.P., and Gobbi, D. (2003). An investigation of gravity wave activity in the low-latitude upper mesosphere: Propagation direction and wind filtering. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002593"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakamura, T., Aono, T., Tsuda, T., Admiranto, A.G., and Achmad, E. (2003). Mesospheric gravity waves over a tropical convective region observed by OH airglow imaging in Indonesia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL017619"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1139\/p60-150","article-title":"Internal atmospheric gravity waves at ionospheric heights","volume":"38","author":"Hines","year":"1960","journal-title":"Can. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9169(68)80033-9","article-title":"Ionospheric irregularities produced by internal atmospheric gravity waves","volume":"30","author":"Hooke","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.020","article-title":"The resonant response of the ionosphere imaged after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Rolland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46607","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46607","article-title":"Real-Time Detection of Tsunami Ionospheric Disturbances with a Stand-Alone GNSS Receiver: A Preliminary Feasibility Demonstration","volume":"7","author":"Savastano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep.-UK"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4329","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JA024654","article-title":"Tsunami wave height estimation from GPS-derived ionospheric data","volume":"123","author":"Rakoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0759-1","article-title":"Large-area tsunami signatures in ionosphere observed by GPS TEC after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake","volume":"22","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL072205","article-title":"Concentric traveling ionosphere disturbances triggered by Super Typhoon Meranti (2016)","volume":"44","author":"Chou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1976)033<1279:IGWGBP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Internal gravity waves generated by penetrative convection","volume":"33","author":"Stull","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/2012RG000419","article-title":"Internal gravity waves from atmospheric jets and fronts","volume":"52","author":"Plougonven","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1038\/2101209a0","article-title":"A mechanism for the generation of acoustic-gravity waves during thunderstorm formation","volume":"210","author":"Pierce","year":"1966","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, J., Vadas, S.L., She, C.Y., Nakamura, T., Reising, S.C., Liu, H.L., Stamus, P., Krueger, D.A., Lyons, W., and Li, T. (2009). Concentric gravity waves in the mesosphere generated by deep convective plumes in the lower atmosphere near Fort Collins, Colorado. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD011244"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lay, E.H., and Shao, X.M. (2011). Multi-station probing of thunderstorm-generated D-layer fluctuations by using time-domain lightning waveforms. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL049790"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9222","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA022554","article-title":"Simultaneous observations of storm-generated sprite and gravity wave over Bangladesh","volume":"121","author":"Chou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2593","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50249","article-title":"Numerical modeling of the large-scale neutral and plasma responses to the body forces created by the dissipation of gravity waves from 6 h of deep convection in Brazil","volume":"118","author":"Vadas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50499","article-title":"Variation in total electron content above large thunderstorms","volume":"40","author":"Lay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7874","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065903","article-title":"Multisensor profiling of a concentric gravity wave event propagating from the troposphere to the ionosphere","volume":"42","author":"Azeem","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5581","DOI":"10.1002\/2013GL057963","article-title":"Concentric waves and short-period oscillations observed in the ionosphere after the 2013 Moore EF5 tornado","volume":"40","author":"Nishioka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50341","article-title":"Simultaneous observations of convective gravity waves from a ground-based airglow imager and the AIRS satellite experiment","volume":"118","author":"Yue","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9032","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JA023914","article-title":"Thunderstorm-\/lightning-induced ionospheric perturbation: An observation from equatorial and low-latitude stations around Hong Kong","volume":"122","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6010","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA021334","article-title":"Ionospheric acoustic and gravity waves associated with midlatitude thunderstorms","volume":"120","author":"Lay","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL076058","article-title":"Ionospheric Irregularities and Acoustic\/Gravity Wave Activity Above Low-Latitude Thunderstorms","volume":"45","author":"Lay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2018.08.001","article-title":"Application of BDS-GEO for studying TEC variability in equatorial ionosphere on different time scales","volume":"63","author":"Padokhin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savastano, G., Komjathy, A., Shume, E., Vergados, P., Ravanelli, M., Verkhoglyadova, O., Meng, X., and Crespi, M. (2019). Advantages of Geostationary Satellites for Ionospheric Anomaly Studies: Ionospheric Plasma Depletion Following a Rocket Launch. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11141734"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7918","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JA020879","article-title":"Detection of ionospheric disturbances driven by the 2014 Chile tsunami using GPS total electron content in New Zealand","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Schaer, S. (1999). Mapping and Predicting the Earth\u2019s Ionosphere Using the Global Positioning System, Geod.-Geophys. Arb. Schweiz."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-015-0240-0","article-title":"Observation of ionospheric disturbances induced by the 2011 Tohoku tsunami using far-field GPS data in Hawaii","volume":"67","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-33-137-2015","article-title":"Traveling ionospheric disturbances triggered by the 2009 North Korean underground nuclear explosion","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys.-Ger."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2013.08.026","article-title":"A study of occurrence characteristics of plasma bubbles over Hong Kong area","volume":"52","author":"Ji","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3626","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50322","article-title":"From Sumatra 2004 to Tohoku-Oki 2011: The systematic GPS detection of the ionospheric signature induced by tsunamigenic earthquakes","volume":"118","author":"Occhipinti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1029\/JA078i001p00218","article-title":"Spread F and ionospheric currents","volume":"78","author":"Perkins","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1668","article-title":"Reduction of electron density in the night-time lower ionosphere in response to a thunderstorm","volume":"6","author":"Shao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/23\/2732\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:36:13Z","timestamp":1760189773000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/23\/2732"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,21]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11232732"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11232732","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,21]]}}}