{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T19:00:28Z","timestamp":1767034828565,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,4]],"date-time":"2019-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1575417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41476162,41531069"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41476162,41531069"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geodetic mass changes in the Svalbard glaciers Austre Lov\u00e9nbreen and Pedersenbreen were studied via high-precision real-time kinematic (RTK)-global positioning system (GPS) measurements from 2013 to 2015. To evaluate the elevation changes of the two Svalbard glaciers, more than 10,000 GPS records for each glacier surface were collected every year from 2013 to 2015. The results of several widely used interpolation methods (i.e., inverse distance weighting (IDW), ordinary kriging (OK), universal kriging (UK), natural neighbor (NN), spline interpolation, and Topo to Raster (TTR) interpolation) were compared. Considering the smoothness and accuracy of the glacier surface, NN interpolation was selected as the most suitable interpolation method to generate a surface digital elevation model (DEM). In addition, we compared two procedures for calculating elevation changes: using DEMs generated from the direct interpolation of the RTK-GPS points and using the elevation bias of crossover points from the RTK-GPS tracks in different years. Then, the geodetic mass balances were calculated by converting the elevation changes to their water equivalents. Comparing the geodetic mass balances calculated with and without considering snow depth revealed that ignoring the effect of snow depth, which differs greatly over a short time interval, might lead to bias in mass balance investigation. In summary, there was a positive correlation between the geodetic mass balance and the corresponding elevation. The mass loss increased with decreasing elevation, and the mean annual gradients of the geodetic mass balance along the elevation of Austre Lov\u00e9nbreen and Pedersenbreen in 2013\u20132015 were approximately 2.60\u2030 and 2.35\u2030, respectively. The gradients at the glacier snouts were three times larger than those over the whole glaciers. Additionally, some mass gain occurred in certain high-elevation regions. Compared with a 2019 DEM generated from unmanned aerial vehicle measurement, the glacier snout areas presented an accelerating thinning situation in 2015\u20132019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11242890","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]],"date-time":"2019-12-05T03:16:36Z","timestamp":1575515796000},"page":"2890","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Latest Geodetic Changes of Austre Lov\u00e9nbreen and Pedersenbreen, Svalbard"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6677-3899","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Songtao","family":"Ai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Antarctic Center of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xi","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Antarctic Center of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2144-3305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Tolle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Th\u00e9MA, CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Bourgogne Franche-Comt\u00e9, 25030 Besan\u00e7on, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zemin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Antarctic Center of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2274-891X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xi","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Antarctic Center of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.3189\/172756407782871512","article-title":"Integrated monitoring of mountain glaciers as key indicators of global climate change: The European Alps","volume":"46","author":"Haeberli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.07.043","article-title":"The glaciers climate change initiative: Methods for creating glacier area, elevation change and velocity products","volume":"162","author":"Paul","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nuth, C., Moholdt, G., Kohler, J., Hagen, J.O., and Kaab, A. (2010). Svalbard glacier elevation changes and contribution to sea level rise. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JF001223"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larsen, C.F., Motyka, R.J., Arendt, A., Echelmeyer, K.A., and Geissler, P.E. (2007). Glacier changes in southeast Alaska and northwest British Columbia and contribution to sea level rise. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 112.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JF000586"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1191\/0309133302pp326ra","article-title":"Glacier mass balance: The first 50 years of international monitoring","volume":"26","author":"Braithwaite","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.3189\/2016AoG71A036","article-title":"First in situ record of decadal glacier mass balance (2003\u20132014) from the Bhutan Himalaya","volume":"57","author":"Tshering","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.3189\/172756405781813096","article-title":"Static mass-Balance sensitivity of arctic glaciers and ice caps using a degree-Day approach","volume":"42","author":"Woul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.3189\/172756405781813131","article-title":"Elevation changes measured on Svalbard glaciers and ice caps from airborne laser data","volume":"42","author":"Bamber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3148","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-013-5772-8","article-title":"Mass change study on Arctic glacier Pedersenbreen, during 1936\u20131990\u20132009","volume":"58","author":"Ai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2014.01.001","article-title":"Comparison of glaciological and geodetic mass balance at Urumqi glacier No. 1, Tian Shan, Central Asia","volume":"114","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Global Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.3189\/172756504781829855","article-title":"Comparison of geodetic and glaciological mass-Balance techniques, Gulkana Glacier, Alaska, USA","volume":"50","author":"Cox","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul, F., and Haeberli, W. (2008). Spatial variability of glacier elevation changes in the Swiss Alps obtained from two digital elevation models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL034718"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-5-107-2011","article-title":"Comparison of direct and geodetic mass balances on a multi-annual time scale","volume":"5","author":"Fischer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.3189\/S0260305500008351","article-title":"Long-Term glacier mass-balance investigations in Svalbard, 1950\u20131988","volume":"14","author":"Hagen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.06.008","article-title":"Recent elevation changes of Svalbard glaciers derived from ICESat laser altimetry","volume":"114","author":"Moholdt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.3189\/172756405781812763","article-title":"Geometry changes on Svalbard glaciers: Mass-Balance or dynamic response","volume":"42","author":"Hagen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"147","article-title":"Surface mass balance and ice flow of the glaciers Austre Lovenbreen and Pedersenbreen, Svalbard, Arctic","volume":"21","author":"Xu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. J. Pol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18533","DOI":"10.3402\/polar.v33.18533","article-title":"Topography, ice thickness and ice volume of the glacier Pedersenbreen in Svalbard, using GPR and GPS","volume":"33","author":"Ai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pol. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ai, S., Ding, X., An, J., Lin, G., Wang, Z., and Yan, M. (2019). Discovery of the Fastest Ice Flow along the Central Flow Line of Austre Lovenbreen, a Poly-Thermal Valley Glacier in Svalbard. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121488"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18400","DOI":"10.3402\/polar.v32i0.18400","article-title":"Elevation and volume changes of seven Dickson Land glaciers, Svalbard, 1960\u20131990\u20132009","volume":"32","author":"Malecki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pol. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1657\/1523-0430(2003)035[0264:OTNMBO]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"On the net mass balance of the glaciers and ice caps in Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic","volume":"35","author":"Hagen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arct. Antarc. Alpine Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3189\/172756407782871440","article-title":"Glacier geometry and elevation changes on Svalbard (1936-90): A baseline dataset","volume":"46","author":"Nuth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1080\/04353676.2017.1285203","article-title":"Change in geometry of a high Arctic glacier from 1948 to 2013 (Austre Lovenbreen, Svalbard)","volume":"99","author":"Marlin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geogr. Ann. Ser. A Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moller, M., Finkelnburg, R., Braun, M., Hock, R., Jonsell, U., Pohjola, V.A., Scherer, D., and Schneider, C. (2011). Climatic mass balance of the ice cap Vestfonna, Svalbard: A spatially distributed assessment using ERA-Interim and MODIS data. J. Geophys. Res., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JF001905"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/893790","article-title":"Temperature and Precipitation Development at Svalbard 1900\u20132100","volume":"2011","author":"Forland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22779","DOI":"10.3402\/polar.v33.22779","article-title":"Changes in meltwater chemistry over a 20-Year period following a thermal regime switch from polythermal to cold-Based glaciation at Austre Broggerbreen, Svalbard","volume":"33","author":"Nowak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pol. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"61","article-title":"Arctic glacier movement monitoring with GPS method on 2005","volume":"17","author":"Ai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chin. J. Pol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Porter, C., Morin, P., Howat, I., Noh, M.J., Bates, B., Peterman, K., Keesey, S., Schlenk, M., Gardiner, J., and Willis, M. (2018). \u201cArcticDEM\u201d. Harv. Dataverse, 1."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.3189\/2012JoG11J175","article-title":"Impact of resolution and radar penetration on glacier elevation changes computed from DEM differencing","volume":"58","author":"Gardelle","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-7-1227-2013","article-title":"Reanalysing glacier mass balance measurement series","volume":"7","author":"Zemp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.3189\/002214309789470950","article-title":"Spatially integrated geodetic glacier mass balance and its uncertainty based on geostatistical analysis: Application to the western Svartisen ice cap, Norway","volume":"55","author":"Rolstad","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2013.09.006","article-title":"A tutorial guide to geostatistics: Computing and modelling variograms and kriging","volume":"113","author":"Oliver","year":"2014","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01036241","article-title":"Problems with universal kriging","volume":"16","author":"Armstrong","year":"1984","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.6.701","article-title":"Effects of topographic variability and lidar sampling density on several DEM interpolation methods","volume":"76","author":"Guo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bojanov, B.D., Hakopian, H.A., and Sahakian, A.A. (1993). Spline Functions and Multivariate Interpolations, Kluwer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-8169-1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(89)90073-5","article-title":"A new procedure for gridding elevation and stream line data with automatic removal of spurious pits","volume":"106","author":"Hutchinson","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-7-877-2013","article-title":"Density assumptions for converting geodetic glacier volume change to mass change","volume":"7","author":"Huss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-9-557-2015","article-title":"Brief communication: Contending estimates of 2003\u20132008 glacier mass balance over the Pamir\u2013Karakoram\u2013Himalaya","volume":"9","author":"Kaab","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1731","article-title":"A comparision of interpolation methods for producing digital elevation models at the field scale","volume":"34","author":"Erdogan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2006.11.036","article-title":"Evaluating digital elevation models for glaciologic applications: An example from Nevado Coropuna, Peruvian Andes","volume":"59","author":"Racoviteanu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Global Planet. Change"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3189\/2015JoG15J015","article-title":"New long-Term mass-Balance series for the Swiss Alps","volume":"61","author":"Huss","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11324","article-title":"Contrasting patterns of early twenty-First-Century glacier mass change in the Himalayas","volume":"488","author":"Kaab","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1450","article-title":"Slight mass gain of karakoram glaciers in the early twenty-First century","volume":"5","author":"Gardelle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3402\/polar.v22i2.6452","article-title":"Glaciers in Svalbard: Mass balance, runoff and freshwater flux","volume":"22","author":"Hagen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pol. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3189\/2015AoG70A958","article-title":"10 year mass balance by glaciological and geodetic methods of Glaciar Bahia del Diablo, Vega Island, Antarctic Peninsula","volume":"56","author":"Marinsek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.3189\/172756409787769780","article-title":"Recent fluctuations in the extent of the firn area of Austfonna, Svalbard, inferred from GPR","volume":"50","author":"Dunse","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0435-3676.1999.00089.x","article-title":"Application of kriging interpolation for glacier mass balance computations","volume":"81","author":"Hock","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geogr. Ann. Ser. A Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2011.627859","article-title":"Modeling of glacier bed topography from glacier outlines, central branch lines, and a DEM","volume":"26","author":"Paul","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"967","article-title":"A spatio-Temporal GIS database for monitoring alpine glacier change","volume":"67","author":"Mennis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08024","article-title":"The Gamburtsev mountains and the origin and early evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet","volume":"459","author":"Bo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/04353676.2017.1297678","article-title":"Ten years of monthly mass balance of Conejeras glacier, Colombia, and their evaluation using different interpolation methods","volume":"99","author":"Molg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geogr. Ann. Ser. A Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2016.06.008","article-title":"GlaRe, a GIS tool to reconstruct the 3D surface of palaeoglaciers","volume":"94","author":"Pellitero","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2823","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2000627","article-title":"Glacier Volume Changes Using ASTER Satellite Stereo and ICESat GLAS Laser Altimetry. A Test Study on Edgeoya, Eastern Svalbard","volume":"46","author":"Kaab","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/24\/2890\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:40:05Z","timestamp":1760190005000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/24\/2890"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,4]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11242890"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11242890","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,4]]}}}