{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T20:35:33Z","timestamp":1771533333400,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]],"date-time":"2019-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1575504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001807","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2014\/22262-0, 2016\/26124-6 and 2016\/01597-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014\/22262-0, 2016\/26124-6 and 2016\/01597-9"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001807","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005668","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Apoio \u00e0 Pesquisa do Distrito Federal","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["official notice 07\/2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["official notice 07\/2015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005668","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Midwest region in Brazil has the largest and most recent agricultural frontier in the country where there is no currently detailed soil information to support the agricultural intensification. Producing large-extent digital soil maps demands a huge volume of data and high computing capacity. This paper proposed mapping surface and subsurface key soil attributes with 30 m-resolution in a large area of Midwest Brazil. These soil maps at multiple depth increments will provide adequate information to guide land use throughout the region. The study area comprises about 851,000 km2 in the Cerrado biome (savannah) in the Brazilian Midwest. We used soil data from 7908 sites of the Brazilian Soil Spectral Library and 231 of the Free Brazilian Repository for Open Soil Data. We selected nine key soil attributes for mapping and aggregated them into three depth intervals: 0\u201320, 20\u201360 and 60\u2013100 cm. A total of 33 soil predictors were prepared using Google Earth Engine (GEE), such as climate and geologic features with 1 km-resolution, terrain and two new covariates with 30 m-resolution, based on satellite measurements of the topsoil reflectance and the seasonal variability in vegetation spectra. The scorpan model was adopted for mapping of soil variables using random forest regression (RF). We used the model-based optimization by tuning RF hyperparameters and calculated the scaled permutation importance of covariates in R software. Our results were promising, with a satisfactory model performance for physical and chemical attributes at all depth intervals. Elevation, climate and topsoil reflectance were the most important covariates in predicting sand, clay and silt. In general, for predicting soil chemical attributes, climatic variables, elevation and vegetation reflectance provided to be the most important of predictive components, while for organic matter it was a combination of climatic dynamics and reflectance bands from vegetation and topsoil. The multiple depth maps showed that soil attributes largely varied across the study area, from clayey to sandy, suggesting that less than 44% of the studied soils had good natural fertility. We concluded that key soil attributes from multiple depth increments can be mapped using Earth observations data and machine learning methods with good performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11242905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]],"date-time":"2019-12-05T11:16:23Z","timestamp":1575544583000},"page":"2905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Mapping at 30 m Resolution of Soil Attributes at Multiple Depths in Midwest Brazil"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1628-4154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ra\u00fal R.","family":"Poppiel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Darcy Ribeiro University Campus, University of Bras\u00edlia; ICC Sul, Asa Norte, Postal Box 4508, Bras\u00edlia 70910-960, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marilusa P. C.","family":"Lacerda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Darcy Ribeiro University Campus, University of Bras\u00edlia; ICC Sul, Asa Norte, Postal Box 4508, Bras\u00edlia 70910-960, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5410-5762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 L.","family":"Safanelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Soil Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo; P\u00e1dua Dias Av., 11, Piracicaba, Postal Box 09, S\u00e3o Paulo 13416-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rodnei","family":"Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Soil Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo; P\u00e1dua Dias Av., 11, Piracicaba, Postal Box 09, S\u00e3o Paulo 13416-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2315-7719","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"Jr.","given":"Manuel P.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Darcy Ribeiro University Campus, University of Bras\u00edlia; ICC Sul, Asa Norte, Postal Box 4508, Bras\u00edlia 70910-960, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6792-1208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean J.","family":"Novais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Darcy Ribeiro University Campus, University of Bras\u00edlia; ICC Sul, Asa Norte, Postal Box 4508, Bras\u00edlia 70910-960, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 A. M.","family":"Dematt\u00ea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Soil Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo; P\u00e1dua Dias Av., 11, Piracicaba, Postal Box 09, S\u00e3o Paulo 13416-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2018.01.030","article-title":"Soil quality\u2014A critical review","volume":"120","author":"Bongiorno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations\u2014Department of Economic and Social Affairs\u2014Population Division (2019, September 20). 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