{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T08:47:54Z","timestamp":1768034874589,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,14]],"date-time":"2019-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX13AO48G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX13AO48G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Award","award":["DE180101288"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE180101288"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents a new approach for detection and mapping of ancient slag heaps using 16-band multispectral satellite imagery. Understanding the distribution of slag (a byproduct of metal production) is of great importance for understanding how metallurgy shaped long-term economic and political change across the ancient Near East. This study presents results of slag mapping in Oman using WorldView-3 (WV3) satellite imagery. A semi-automated target detection routine using a mixed tuned matched filtering (MTMF) algorithm with scene-derived spectral signatures was applied to 16-band WV3 imagery. Associated field mapping at two copper production sites indicates that WorldView-3 satellite data can differentiate slag and background materials with a relatively high (&gt;90%) overall accuracy. Although this method shows promise for future initiatives to discover and map slag deposits, difficulties in dark object spectral differentiation and underestimation of total slag coverage substantially limit its use. Resulting lower estimations of combined user\u2019s (61%) and producer\u2019s (45%) accuracies contextualize these limitations for slag specific classification. Accordingly, we describe potential approaches to address these challenges in future studies. As sites of ancient metallurgy in Oman are often located in areas of modern exploration and mining, detection and mapping of ancient slag heaps via satellite imagery can be helpful for discovery and monitoring of vulnerable cultural heritage sites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11243014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,16]],"date-time":"2019-12-16T05:19:38Z","timestamp":1576473578000},"page":"3014","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Detecting and Mapping Slag Heaps at Ancient Copper Production Sites in Oman"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Alexander J.","family":"Sivitskis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science Education, Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan, Samtse, Samtse Dzonkhag 22001, Bhutan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5097-3017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph W.","family":"Lehner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Archaeology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9290-7624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael J.","family":"Harrower","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}]},{"given":"Ioana A.","family":"Dumitru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}]},{"given":"Paige E.","family":"Paulsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9846-904X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Smiti","family":"Nathan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Design Lab, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}]},{"given":"Daniel R.","family":"Viete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}]},{"given":"Suleiman","family":"Al-Jabri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Heritage and Culture, Bat 511, Oman"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9226-1053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Helwing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Archaeology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0317-4853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frances","family":"Wiig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, UNSW SYDNEY, Kingsford, NSW 2052, Australia"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Moraetis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics and Astronomy, College of Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, UAE"}]},{"given":"Bernhard","family":"Pracejus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, College of Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khod, Muscat 123, Oman"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2010.07.009","article-title":"Direct detection of Southeast Asian smelting sites by ASTER remote sensing imagery: Technical issues and future perspectives","volume":"37","author":"Pryce","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. 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