{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T00:41:16Z","timestamp":1771029676467,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]],"date-time":"2019-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576627200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Calibration of terrestrial laser scanners (TLSs) is one of the fundamental tasks for assuring the high measurement accuracy required by an increasing number of end-users. Nevertheless, the development of user-oriented calibration approaches is still an active topic of research. The calibration fields for the target-based self-calibration of TLSs described in the literature are based on the quasi-random distribution of a high number of targets, and they rely on heavy redundancy. This redundancy assures highly accurate calibration results, however, with the price of reduced efficiency. In contrast, this work follows the design, implementation, and validation of a user-oriented, cost-efficient calibration field intended for TLS calibration prior to measurement campaigns. Multiple goals and constraints are placed upon the design of the calibration field, such as comprehensive calibration for high-end panoramic TLSs considering all relevant mechanical misalignments, delivering stable and reusable calibration parameters, increasing calibration efficiency by minimizing calibration-field assembly, measurement acquisition and processing time through reducing the number of targets and scanner stations, as well as estimating calibration parameters with predefined quality criteria. The calibration field design was derived through a series of simulation experiments and it was compared with the current state of the art. The simulations indicate comparable calibration results, with eight times smaller number of targets (14 instead of 120). The implemented calibration field was tested on a range of instruments, successfully improving the measurement quality, both in situ and in the subsequent applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,23]],"date-time":"2019-12-23T03:15:01Z","timestamp":1577070901000},"page":"15","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Designing and Evaluating a User-Oriented Calibration Field for the Target-Based Self-Calibration of Panoramic Terrestrial Laser Scanners"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6332-5783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomislav","family":"Medi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"given":"Heiner","family":"Kuhlmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7966-4322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Holst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"99","article-title":"A review of the use of terrestrial laser scanning application for change detection and deformation monitoring of structures","volume":"49","author":"Mukupa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Bianculli, D., Humphries, D., and Berkeley, L. (2016, January 3\u20137). Application of terrestrial laser scanner in particle accelerator and reverse engineering solutions. Proceedings of the 14th International Workshop Accelerator Alignment, Grenoble, France."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7224","DOI":"10.3390\/s130607224","article-title":"Improvements to and comparison of static terrestrial LiDAR self-calibration methods","volume":"13","author":"Chow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Gielsdorf, F., Rietdorf, A., and Gruendig, L. (2004, January 22\u201327). A Concept for the Calibration of Terrestrial Laser Scanners. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"14","article-title":"On-site self-calibration using planar features for terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"36","author":"Bae","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B5-169-2012","article-title":"Cylinder-Based Self-Calibration of a Panoramic Terrestrial Laser Scanner","volume":"XXXIX","author":"Chan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1515\/jag-2017-0044","article-title":"Dealing with systematic laser scanner errors due to misalignment at area-based deformation analyses","volume":"12","author":"Holst","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2006.10.004","article-title":"Error modelling, calibration and analysis of an AM-CW terrestrial laser scanner system","volume":"61","author":"Lichti","year":"2007","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Reshetyuk, Y. (2009). Self-Calibration and Direct Georeferencing in Terrestrial Laser Scanning, KTH Stockholm."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.03.009","article-title":"An on-site approach for the self-calibration of terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"52","author":"Abbas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-5-219-2014","article-title":"Self-calibration of terrestrial laser scanners: Selection of the best geometric additional parameters","volume":"II-5","author":"Lerma","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Neitzel, F. (2006, January 28\u201331). Investigation of Axes Errors of Terrestrial Laser Scanners. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium Turkish-German Joint Geodetic Days, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065016","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aa6929","article-title":"Determining geometric error model parameters of a terrestrial laser scanner through two-face, length-consistency, and network methods","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precisioneng.2017.08.004","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanner geometric error model parameter correlations in the Two-face, Length-consistency, and Network methods of self-calibration","volume":"52","author":"Muralikrishnan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Precis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medi\u0107, T., Kuhlmann, H., and Holst, C. (2019). Automatic in-situ self-calibration of a panoramic TLS from a single station using 2D keypoints. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, ISPRS.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-IV-2-W5-413-2019"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9277","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2869559","article-title":"Terrestrial Laser Scanner Autonomous Self-Calibration with No Prior Knowledge of Point-Clouds","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.02.007","article-title":"Geometric calibration of a terrestrial laser scanner with local additional parameters: An automatic strategy","volume":"79","author":"Lerma","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.09.002","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration: Correlation sources and their mitigation","volume":"65","author":"Lichti","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.12.001","article-title":"Parameter de-correlation and model-identification in hybrid-style terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration","volume":"66","author":"Lichti","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medi\u0107, T., Kuhlmann, H., and Holst, C. (2019). Sensitivity Analysis and Minimal Measurement Geometry for the Target-Based Calibration of High-End Panoramic Terrestrial Laser Scanners. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11131519"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precisioneng.2014.11.002","article-title":"Volumetric performance evaluation of a laser scanner based on geometric error model","volume":"40","author":"Muralikrishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Precis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.11.003","article-title":"A rigorous cylinder-based self-calibration approach for terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"99","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Chow, J.C.K., Teskey, W.F., and Lovse, J.W. (2011, January 2\u20134). In-situ Self-calibration of Terrestrial Laser Scanners and Deformation Analysis Using Both Signalized Targets and Intersection of Planes for Indoor Applications. Proceedings of the 14th FIG Symposium on Deformation Measurements and Analysis, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"121","article-title":"Point-based versus plane-based self-calibration of static terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"38","author":"Chow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2016.12.053","article-title":"Improvements to the accuracy of prototype ship models measurement method using terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"100","author":"Abbas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2012.00700.x","article-title":"Inner Constraints for Planar Features","volume":"28","author":"Lichti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Ge, X. (2016). Terrestrial Laser Scanning Technology from Calibration to Registration with Respect to Deformation Monitoring, Technical University of Munich."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medi\u0107, T., Holst, C., and Kuhlmann, H. (2017). Towards System Calibration of Panoramic Laser Scanners from a Single Station. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17051145"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"171","article-title":"The impact of angle parameterisation on terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration","volume":"38","author":"Lichti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Medi\u0107, T., Holst, C., and Kuhlmann, H. (2019). Improving the results of terrestrial laser scanner calibration by an optimized calibration process. Photogrammetrie Laserscanning Optische 3DMesstechnik\u2014Beitr\u00e4ge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Parian, J.A. (2007). Sensor Modeling, Calibration and Point Positioning with Terrestrial Panoramic Cameras, Inst. f\u00fcr Geod\u00e4sie und Photogrammetrie."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"295","article-title":"Aiming at self-calibration of terrestrial laser scanners using only one single object and one single scan","volume":"8","author":"Holst","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muralikrishnan, B., Rachakonda, P., Shilling, M., Lee, V., Blackburn, C., Sawyer, D., Cheok, G., and Cournoyer, L. (2016). Report on the May 2016 ASTM E57.02 Instrument Runoff at NIST, Part 1\u2014Background Information and Key Findings, US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology.","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.IR.8152"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Walsh, G. (2019, May 21). Leica ScanStation P-Series\u2014Details that matter. Leica ScanStation\u2014White Paper. Available online: http:\/\/blog.hexagongeosystems.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/12\/Leica_ScanStation_P-Series_details_that_matter_white_paper_en-4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schofield, W., and Breach, M. (2007). Engineering Surveying, Elsevier. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12847"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00f6rstner, W., and Wrobel, B.P. (2016). Photogrammetric Computer Vision, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11550-4"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medi\u0107, T., Holst, C., Jan\u00dfen, J., and Kuhlmann, H. (2019). Empirical stochastic model of detected target centroids: Influence on registration and calibration of terrestrial laser scanners. J. Appl. Geod.","DOI":"10.1515\/jag-2018-0032"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Kuang, S. (1996). Geodetic Network Analysis and Optimal Design: Concepts and Applications, Ann Arbor Press."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grafarend, E.W., and Sanso, F. (1985). Optimization and Design of Geodetic Networks, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-70659-2"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2003.11.001","article-title":"The design of the global navigation satellite system surveying networks using genetic algorithms","volume":"17","author":"Saleh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000053","article-title":"Second order design of geodetic networks by the simulated annealing method","volume":"137","author":"Baselga","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niemeier, W. (2008). Ausgleichungsrechnung: Statistische Auswertemethoden, Walter de Gruyter.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110206784"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, M.A., Setan, H., Majid, Z., Idris, K.M., Chong, A.K., and Lichti, D.D. (2014, January 16\u201321). The Effect of Datum Constraints for Terrestrial Laser Scanner Self-Calibration The Effect of Datum Constraints for Terrestrial Laser Scanners Self-Calibration. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.11113\/jt.v75.5278"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012066","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/18\/1\/012066","article-title":"Improvement in measurement accuracy for hybrid scanner","volume":"18","author":"Abbas","year":"2014","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, F., and Lichti, D.D. (2018). An Efficient, Hierarchical Viewpoint Planning Strategy for Terrestrial Laser Scanner Networks. ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci., 4.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-IV-2-137-2018"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"127","article-title":"Optimizing Terrestrial Laser Scanning Measurement Set-Up","volume":"XXXVIII-5","author":"Soudarissanane","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-143-2018","article-title":"SCAN Planning and Route Optimization for Control of Execution of As-Designed Bim","volume":"XLII-4","author":"Balado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-IV-2-W4-75-2017","article-title":"A comparison of simulated annealing, genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization in optimal first-order design of indoor TLS networks","volume":"4","author":"Jia","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000081","article-title":"Basic Concepts of Optimization and Design of Geodetic Networks","volume":"138","author":"Asgari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2676","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.19.002676","article-title":"Trimble GX200 and Riegl LMS-Z390i sensor self-calibration","volume":"19","author":"Armesto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"64","article-title":"A Testing Procedure for Use in Geodetic Networks","volume":"2","author":"Baarda","year":"1968","journal-title":"Netherlands Geod. Comm."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baarda, W. (1967). Statistical Concepts in Geodesy\u2019, Netherlands Geod, Publications on Geodesy.","DOI":"10.54419\/bjdeu2"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Heinz, E., Eling, C., Wieland, M., Klingbeil, L., and Kuhlmann, H. (2017, January 17\u201320). Analysis of different reference plane setups for the calibration of a mobile laser scanning system. Proceedings of the Internationalen Ingenieurvermessungskurs, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"52","article-title":"Dilution of precision","volume":"10","author":"Langley","year":"1999","journal-title":"GPS World"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jan\u00dfen, J., Medi\u0107, T., Kuhlmann, H., and Holst, C. (2019). Decreasing the uncertainty of the target centre estimation at terrestrial laser scanning by choosing the best algorithm and by improving the target design. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070845"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"71","article-title":"Zur Bestimmung der Signifikanten Parameter in Approximationsfunktionen","volume":"10","author":"Schwintzer","year":"1984","journal-title":"Inst. f\u00fcr Geod\u00e4sie der UniBW M\u00fcnchen M\u00fcnchen, Ger."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Chow, J.C.K., Lichti, D.D., Teskey, W.F., and Key, C. (2012, January 6\u201310). Accuracy assessment of the FARO Focus 3D and Leica HDS6100 panoramic-type terrestrial laser scanners through point-based and plane-based user self-calibration. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week: Knowing to Manage the Territory, Protect the Environment, Evaluate the Cultural Heritage, Rome, Italy."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.04.009","article-title":"Accurate 3D comparison of complex topography with terrestrial laser scanner: Application to the Rangitikei canyon (NZ)","volume":"82","author":"Lague","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Mikhail, E.W. (1976). Observations and Least Squares, IEP Don-Donnelley."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103320I","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2270761","article-title":"Investigation of indoor and outdoor performance of two portable mobile mapping systems","volume":"Volume 10332","author":"Nocerino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Videometrics, Range Imaging, and Applications XIV"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-5-W4-245-2015","article-title":"Accuracy evaluation of a mobile mapping system with advanced statistical methods","volume":"40","author":"Toschi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/1\/15\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:43:28Z","timestamp":1760190208000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/1\/15"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12010015"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12010015","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]}}}