{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T12:27:42Z","timestamp":1778675262505,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]],"date-time":"2019-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576800000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001807","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016\/24185-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016\/24185-8"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001807","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The potential applications of computational tools, such as anomaly detection and incongruence, for analyzing data attract much attention from the scientific research community. However, there remains a need for more studies to determine how anomaly detection and incongruence applied to analyze data of static images from remote sensing will assist in detecting water pollution. In this study, an incongruence-based anomaly detection strategy for analyzing water pollution in images from remote sensing is presented. Our strategy semi-automatically detects occurrences of one type of anomaly based on the divergence between two image classifications (contextual and non-contextual). The results indicate that our strategy accurately analyzes the majority of images. Incongruence as a strategy for detecting anomalies in real-application (non-synthetic) data found in images from remote sensing is relevant for recognizing crude oil close to open water bodies or water pollution caused by the presence of brown mud in large rivers. It can also assist surveillance systems by detecting environmental disasters or performing mappings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,23]],"date-time":"2019-12-23T03:15:01Z","timestamp":1577070901000},"page":"43","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["An Incongruence-Based Anomaly Detection Strategy for Analyzing Water Pollution in Images from Remote Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1361-6184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maur\u00edcio Ara\u00fajo","family":"Dias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, School of Sciences and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus Presidente Prudente, SP 19060-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Erivaldo Ant\u00f4nio da","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartography, School of Sciences and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus Presidente Prudente, SP 19060-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6237-3070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samara Cal\u00e7ado de","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Department, Federal University of Itajuba, Av. BPS 1303, Itajub\u00e1, MG 37500-903, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1073-9939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wallace","family":"Casaca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Engineering, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus Rosana, SP 19274-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8656-9147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thiago","family":"Statella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Mato Grosso (IFMT), 95 Zulmira Canavarro, Cuiab\u00e1, MT 780025-200, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4808-2362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rog\u00e9rio Galante","family":"Negri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Sciences and Technology Institute, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos, SP 12247-004, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2015.09.010","article-title":"A survey on representation-based classification and detection in hyperspectral remote sensing imagery","volume":"83","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. 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