{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T17:12:56Z","timestamp":1784740376983,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1578009600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017YFC0404501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC0404501"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41761144079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41761144079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002367","name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["XDA20060303"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA20060303"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002367","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002367","name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["131551KYSB20160002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["131551KYSB20160002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002367","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Department of science and technology of xinjiang uygur autonomous region","award":["Y744261"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Y744261"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While mountain runoff provides great potential for the development and life quality of downstream populations, it also frequently causes seasonal disasters. The accurate modeling of hydrological processes in mountainous areas, as well as the amount of meltwater from ice and snow, is of great significance for the local sustainable development, hydropower regulations, and disaster prevention. In this study, an improved model, the Soil Water Assessment Tool with added ice-melt module (SWATAI) was developed based on the Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), a semi-distributed hydrological model, to simulate ice and snow runoff. A temperature condition used to determine precipitation types has been added in the SWATAI model, along with an elevation threshold and an accumulative daily temperature threshold for ice melt, making it more consistent with the runoff process of ice and snow. As a supplementary reference, the comparison between the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the quantity of meltwater were conducted to verify the simulation results and assess the impact of meltwater on the ecology. Through these modifications, the accuracy of the daily flow simulation results has been considerably improved, and the contribution rate of ice and snow melt to the river discharge calculated by the model increased by 18.73%. The simulation comparison of the flooding process revealed that the accuracy of the simulated peak flood value by the SWATAI was 77.65% higher than that of the SWAT, and the temporal accuracy was 82.93% higher. The correlation between the meltwater calculated by the SWATAI and the NDVI has also improved significantly. This improved model could simulate the flooding processes with high temporal resolution in alpine regions. The simulation results could provide technical support for economic benefits and reasonable reference for flood prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010179","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T11:55:07Z","timestamp":1578052507000},"page":"179","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Accurate Simulation of Ice and Snow Runoff for the Mountainous Terrain of the Kunlun Mountains, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Yongchao","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of GIS &amp; RS Application Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Department of Geography, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"},{"name":"Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory of Geo-information, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory of Geo-information, 9000 Gent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6879-4818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tie","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of GIS &amp; RS Application Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory of Geo-information, Urumqi 830011, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fanhao","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot 010022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ye","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of GIS &amp; RS Application Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot 010022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of GIS &amp; RS Application Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Nzabarinda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of GIS &amp; RS Application Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8902-3855","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philippe","family":"De Maeyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"},{"name":"Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory of Geo-information, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory of Geo-information, 9000 Gent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1029\/2010WR009438","article-title":"Streamflow responses to past and projected future changes in climate at the hubbard brook experimental forest, new hampshire, United States","volume":"47","author":"Campbell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Resour. 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