{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T06:13:25Z","timestamp":1771913605123,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]],"date-time":"2020-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579219200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000875","name":"Pew Charitable Trusts","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Lenfest Ocean Program grant 00032718"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Lenfest Ocean Program grant 00032718"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000875","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coral reef ecosystems are rapidly changing, and a persistent problem with monitoring changes in reef habitat complexity rests in the spatial resolution and repeatability of measurement techniques. We developed a new approach for high spatial resolution (&lt;1 m) mapping of nearshore bathymetry and three-dimensional habitat complexity (rugosity) using airborne high-fidelity imaging spectroscopy. Using this new method, we mapped coral reef habitat throughout two bays to a maximum depth of 25 m and compared the results to the laser-based SHOALS bathymetry standard. We also compared the results derived from imaging spectroscopy to a more conventional 4-band multispectral dataset. The spectroscopic approach yielded consistent results on repeat flights, despite variability in viewing and solar geometries and sea state conditions. We found that the spectroscopy-based results were comparable to those derived from SHOALS, and they were a major improvement over the multispectral approach. Yet, spectroscopy provided much finer spatial information than that which is available with SHOALS, which is valuable for analyzing changes in benthic composition at the scale of individual coral colonies. Monitoring temporal changes in reef 3D complexity at high spatial resolution will provide an improved means to assess the impacts of climate change and coastal processes that affect reef complexity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12020310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]],"date-time":"2020-01-17T07:39:02Z","timestamp":1579246742000},"page":"310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["High-Resolution Reef Bathymetry and Coral Habitat Complexity from Airborne Imaging Spectroscopy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7893-6421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory P.","family":"Asner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0428-2909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas R.","family":"Vaughn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Balzotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9497-7661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip G.","family":"Brodrick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Heckler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"839","article-title":"Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world\u2019s coral reefs","volume":"50","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S129","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380050249","article-title":"Coral bleaching: Causes and consequences","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"1997","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00562","article-title":"Land use impacts on coral reef health: A ridge-to-reef perspective","volume":"6","author":"Carlson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14140","article-title":"Predicting climate-driven regime shifts versus rebound potential in coral reefs","volume":"518","author":"Graham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dustan, P., Doherty, O., and Pardede, S. (2013). Digital reef rugosity estimates coral reef habitat complexity. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057386"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-012-0984-y","article-title":"The importance of structural complexity in coral reef ecosystems","volume":"32","author":"Graham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s10641-006-9078-4","article-title":"Relationships between reef fish communities and remotely sensed rugosity measurements in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA","volume":"78","author":"Kuffner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Biol. Fishes"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1007\/s10641-011-9956-2","article-title":"The effectiveness of different meso-scale rugosity metrics for predicting intra-habitat variation in coral-reef fish assemblages","volume":"94","author":"Harborne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Biol. Fishes"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-003-0365-7","article-title":"LIDAR optical rugosity of coral reefs in Biscayne National Park, Florida","volume":"23","author":"Brock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/01490410701812170","article-title":"Improving coral reef habitat mapping of the Puerto Rico insular shelf using side scan sonar","volume":"31","author":"Prada","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Geod."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Putney, A., Chang, E., Chatham, R., Marx, D., Nelson, M., and Warman, L.K. (2001, January 10\u201317). Synthetic aperture sonar-the modern method of underwater remote sensing. Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings (Cat. No. 01TH8542), Big Sky, MT, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00003-9","article-title":"Scanning laser mapping of the coastal zone: The SHOALS system","volume":"54","author":"Irish","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00099-7","article-title":"New capabilities of the \u201cSHOALS\u201d airborne lidar bathymeter","volume":"73","author":"Guenther","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Polcyn, F.C., and Rollin, R. (1969). Remote Sensing Techniques for the Location and Measurement of Shallow-Water Features, The University of Michigan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2010.10","article-title":"Monitoring coral reefs from space","volume":"23","author":"Eakin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"331","article-title":"Shallow sea-floor reflectance and water depth derived by unmixing multispectral imagery","volume":"59","author":"Bierwirth","year":"1993","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111302","article-title":"Adaptive bathymetry estimation for shallow coastal waters using Planet Dove satellites","volume":"232","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0547","article-title":"Determination of water depth with high-resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types","volume":"48","author":"Stumpf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00079","article-title":"Scaling up coral reef restoration using remote sensing technology","volume":"6","author":"Foo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.07.030","article-title":"Airborne mapping of benthic reflectance spectra with Bayesian linear mixtures","volume":"200","author":"Thompson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-007-0271-5","article-title":"Bathymetry, water optical properties, and benthic classification of coral reefs using hyperspectral remote sensing imagery","volume":"26","author":"Lesser","year":"2007","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.012","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory-2: Increasing science data dimensionality via high-fidelity multi-sensor fusion","volume":"124","author":"Asner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chapman, J.W., Thompson, D.R., Helmlinger, M.C., Bue, B.D., Green, R.O., Eastwood, M.L., Geier, S., Olson-Duvall, W., and Lundeen, S.R. (2019). Spectral and radiometric calibration of the next generation airborne visible infrared spectrometer (AVIRIS-NG). Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11182129"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.39.002210","article-title":"Design of pushbroom imaging spectrometers for optimum recovery of spectroscopic and spatial information","volume":"39","author":"Mouroulis","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Kramer, K., Cotton, S., Lamson, M., and Walsh, W. (2016, January 19\u201324). Bleaching and catastrophic mortality of reef-building corals along west Hawai\u2019i island: Findings and future directions. Proceedings of the 13th International Coral Reef Symposium, Honolulu, Hawaii."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3549","DOI":"10.1029\/JD095iD04p03549","article-title":"Column atmospheric water vapor and vegetation liquid water retrievals from airborne imaging spectrometer data","volume":"95","author":"Gao","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Abadi, M., Agarwal, A., Barham, P., Brevdo, E., Chen, Z., Citro, C., Corrado, G.S., Davis, A., Dean, J., and Devin, M. (2016). TensorFlow: Large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous distributed systems. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kingma, D., and Ba, J. (2014). Adam: A method for stochastic optimization. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.11.026","article-title":"Sentinel-2: ESA\u2019s optical high-resolution mission for GMES operational services","volume":"120","author":"Drusch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1419","article-title":"Quantifying landscape ruggedness for animal habitat analysis: A case study using bighorn sheep in the Mojave Desert","volume":"71","author":"Sappington","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wildfire"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2512","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37713-1","article-title":"Effects of bleaching-associated mass coral mortality on reef structural complexity across a gradient of local disturbance","volume":"9","author":"Magel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walbridge, S., Slocum, N., Pobuda, M., and Wright, D.J. (2018). Unified geomorphological analysis workflows with Benthic Terrain Modeler. Geosciences, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences8030094"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-019-01827-3","article-title":"Using 3D photogrammetry from ROV video to quantify cold-water coral reef structural complexity and investigate its influence on biodiversity and community assemblage","volume":"28","author":"Price","year":"2019","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2218818","article-title":"Combined effect of reduced band number and increased bandwidth on shallow water remote sensing: The case of WorldView 2","volume":"51","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"253","article-title":"Airborne lidar bathymetry","volume":"2","author":"Guenther","year":"2007","journal-title":"Digit. Elev. Model Technol. Appl. DEM Users Man."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3355","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.3355","article-title":"Patterns of bleaching and mortality following widespread warming events in 2014 and 2015 at the Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve, Hawai\u2019i","volume":"5","author":"Rodgers","year":"2017","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.06.012","article-title":"An introduction to the NASA Hyperspectral InfraRed Imager (HyspIRI) mission and preparatory activities","volume":"167","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/2\/310\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:29:43Z","timestamp":1760362183000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/2\/310"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12020310"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12020310","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]]}}}