{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T10:39:50Z","timestamp":1775558390987,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]],"date-time":"2020-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In many tropical areas, evapotranspiration is the most important but least known component of the water cycle. An innovative method, named E3S (for EVASPA S-SEBI Sahel), was developed to provide spatially-distributed estimates of daily actual evapotranspiration (ETd) from remote sensing data in the Sahel. This new method combines the strengths of a contextual approach that is used to estimate the evaporative fraction (EF) from surface temperature vs. albedo scatterograms and of an ensemble approach that derives ETd estimates from a weighted average of evapotranspiration estimated from several EF methods. In this work, the two combined approaches were derived from the simplified surface energy balance index (S-SEBI) model and the EVapotranspiration Assessment from SPAce (EVASPA) tool. Main innovative aspects concern (i) ensemble predictions of ETd through the implementation of a dynamic weighting scheme of several evapotranspiration estimations, (ii) epistemic uncertainty of the estimation of ETd from the analysis of the variability of evapotranspiration estimates, and (iii) a new cloud filtering method that significantly improves the detection of cloud edges that negatively affect EF determination. E3S was applied to MODIS\/TERRA and AQUA datasets acquired during the 2005\u20132008 period over the mesoscale AMMA-CATCH (Analyse Multidisciplinaire de la Mousson Africaine\u2014Couplage de l\u2019Atmosph\u00e8re Tropicale et du Cycle Hydrologique) observatory in South-West Niger. E3S estimates of instantaneous and daily available energy, evaporative fraction, and evapotranspiration were evaluated at a local scale based on two field-monitored plots representing the two main ecosystem types in the area\u2014a millet crop and a fallow savannah bush. In addition to these ground-based observations, the local scale evaluation was performed against continuous simulations by a locally-calibrated soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer model for the two plots. The RMSE (root mean square error) from this comparison for E3S\u2019s ETd estimates from combined AQUA\/TERRA sources was 0.5 mm\u00b7day\u22121, and the determination coefficient was 0.90. E3S significantly improved representation of the evapotranspiration seasonality, compared with a classical implementation of S-SEBI or with the original EVASPA\u2019s non-weighted ensemble scheme. At the mesoscale, ETd estimates were obtained with an average epistemic uncertainty of 0.4 mm\u00b7day\u22121. Comparisons with the reference 0.25\u00b0-resolution GLEAM (global land evaporation Amsterdam model) product showed good agreement. These results suggested that E3S could be used to produce reliable continuous regional estimations at a kilometric resolution, consistent with land and water management requirements in the Sahel. Moreover, all these innovations could be easily transposed to other contextual approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]],"date-time":"2020-01-24T11:01:00Z","timestamp":1579863660000},"page":"380","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Evapotranspiration Estimation in the Sahel Using a New Ensemble-Contextual Method"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1589-5797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aubin","family":"Allies","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5173-9030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00e9r\u00f4me","family":"Demarty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8342-9272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albert","family":"Olioso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnement M\u00e9diterran\u00e9en et Mod\u00e9lisation des AgroHydrosyst\u00e8mes (EMMAH), INRAE, Avignon Universit\u00e9, 228 route de l\u2019A\u00e9rodrome Domaine Saint Paul\u2014Site Agroparc, 84914 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Bouzou Moussa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Universit\u00e9 Abdou Moumouni de Niamey, Harobanda Quarter, Niamey BP 237, Niger"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0506-2724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hassane Bil-Assanou","family":"Issoufou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Science and Technology, Universit\u00e9 Dan Dicko Dankoulodo de Maradi, Maradi BP 465, Nigeri"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"C\u00e9cile","family":"Velluet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnement M\u00e9diterran\u00e9en et Mod\u00e9lisation des AgroHydrosyst\u00e8mes (EMMAH), INRAE, Avignon Universit\u00e9, 228 route de l\u2019A\u00e9rodrome Domaine Saint Paul\u2014Site Agroparc, 84914 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Malik","family":"Bahir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnement M\u00e9diterran\u00e9en et Mod\u00e9lisation des AgroHydrosyst\u00e8mes (EMMAH), INRAE, Avignon Universit\u00e9, 228 route de l\u2019A\u00e9rodrome Domaine Saint Paul\u2014Site Agroparc, 84914 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0732-867X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Ma\u00efnassara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"},{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD) Representation, 276 avenue de Maradi, Niamey BP 11 416, Niger"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Monique","family":"O\u00ef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean-Philippe","family":"Chazarin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8533-1164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernard","family":"Cappelaere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 300 avenue du Professeur Emile Jeanbrau, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1100217","article-title":"Regions of Strong Coupling Between Soil Moisture and Precipitation","volume":"305","author":"Koster","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1173","article-title":"Frequency of Sahelian storm initiation enhanced over mesoscale soil-moisture patterns","volume":"4","author":"Taylor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. 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