{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T02:45:11Z","timestamp":1782960311118,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]],"date-time":"2020-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"XL Catlin Ltd","award":["XL Catlin Seaview Survey"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XL Catlin Seaview Survey"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Laureate and Centre of Excellence"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Laureate and Centre of Excellence"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Vulcan Inc","award":["Null"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Null"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ecosystem monitoring is central to effective management, where rapid reporting is essential to provide timely advice. While digital imagery has greatly improved the speed of underwater data collection for monitoring benthic communities, image analysis remains a bottleneck in reporting observations. In recent years, a rapid evolution of artificial intelligence in image recognition has been evident in its broad applications in modern society, offering new opportunities for increasing the capabilities of coral reef monitoring. Here, we evaluated the performance of Deep Learning Convolutional Neural Networks for automated image analysis, using a global coral reef monitoring dataset. The study demonstrates the advantages of automated image analysis for coral reef monitoring in terms of error and repeatability of benthic abundance estimations, as well as cost and benefit. We found unbiased and high agreement between expert and automated observations (97%). Repeated surveys and comparisons against existing monitoring programs also show that automated estimation of benthic composition is equally robust in detecting change and ensuring the continuity of existing monitoring data. Using this automated approach, data analysis and reporting can be accelerated by at least 200x and at a fraction of the cost (1%). Combining commonly used underwater imagery in monitoring with automated image annotation can dramatically improve how we measure and monitor coral reefs worldwide, particularly in terms of allocating limited resources, rapid reporting and data integration within and across management areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,5]],"date-time":"2020-02-05T03:18:48Z","timestamp":1580872728000},"page":"489","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":189,"title":["Monitoring of Coral Reefs Using Artificial Intelligence: A Feasible and Cost-Effective Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Manuel","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Rivero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Marine Science, 4810 Cape Cleveland, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar","family":"Beijbom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"Berkeley Artificial Intelligence Research, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Rodriguez-Ramirez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dominic E. P.","family":"Bryant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anjani","family":"Ganase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeray","family":"Gonzalez-Marrero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Herrera-Reveles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ecologia y Zoologia Tropical, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Miranda 1051 Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emma V.","family":"Kennedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine J. S.","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0814-2906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Lopez-Marcano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathryn","family":"Markey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benjamin P.","family":"Neal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, ME 04544, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kate","family":"Osborne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Marine Science, 4810 Cape Cleveland, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catalina","family":"Reyes-Nivia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eugenia M.","family":"Sampayo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin","family":"Stolberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abbie","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julie","family":"Vercelloni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers, Queensland University of Technology, and School of Mathematical Sciences, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, 4000 Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mathew","family":"Wyatt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Marine Science, 4810 Cape Cleveland, QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ove","family":"Hoegh-Guldberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"School of Biological Sciences and ARC CoE for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, 4072 St Lucia. QLD, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(01)02205-4","article-title":"Monitoring of biological diversity in space and time","volume":"16","author":"Yoccoz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2010.02.013","article-title":"The science and application of ecological monitoring","volume":"143","author":"Lindenmayer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2006.08.007","article-title":"Monitoring for conservation","volume":"21","author":"Nichols","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. 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