{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T18:03:19Z","timestamp":1784224999157,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,9]],"date-time":"2020-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1583712000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41531174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41531174"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41671335"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41671335"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, a Bayesian-based three-cornered hat (BTCH) method is developed to improve the estimation of terrestrial evapotranspiration (ET) by integrating multisource ET products without using any a priori knowledge. Ten long-term (30 years) gridded ET datasets from statistical or empirical, remotely-sensed, and land surface models over contiguous United States (CONUS) are integrated by the BTCH and ensemble mean (EM) methods. ET observations from eddy covariance towers (ETEC) at AmeriFlux sites and ET values from the water balance method (ETWB) are used to evaluate the BTCH- and EM-integrated ET estimates. Results indicate that BTCH performs better than EM and all the individual parent products. Moreover, the trend of BTCH-integrated ET estimates, and their influential factors (e.g., air temperature, normalized differential vegetation index, and precipitation) from 1982 to 2011 are analyzed by the Mann\u2013Kendall method. Finally, the 30-year (1982 to 2011) total water storage anomaly (TWSA) in the Mississippi River Basin (MRB) is retrieved based on the BTCH-integrated ET estimates. The TWSA retrievals in this study agree well with those from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12050878","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,10]],"date-time":"2020-03-10T11:59:36Z","timestamp":1583841576000},"page":"878","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["A Bayesian Three-Cornered Hat (BTCH) Method: Improving the Terrestrial Evapotranspiration Estimation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Xinlei","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1744-8974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tongren","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youlong","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I. M. Systems Group at Environmental Modeling Center (EMC), National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), College Park, MD 20741, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7134-0067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sayed M.","family":"Bateni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhixia","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaomin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1288-8428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kebiao","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Hulunber Grassland Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huaize","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingxue","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3227","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6329","article-title":"Partitioning of evapotranspiration and its relation to carbon dioxide exchange in a Chihuahuan Desert shrubland","volume":"20","author":"Scott","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2016.11.129","article-title":"Spatiotemporal change and trend analysis of potential evapotranspiration over the Loess Plateau of China during 2011\u20132100","volume":"233","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2010.06.009","article-title":"Using the dual approach of FAO-56 for partitioning ET into soil and plant components for olive orchards in a semi-arid region","volume":"97","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2618","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR020175","article-title":"The future of evapotranspiration: Global requirements for ecosystem functioning, carbon and climate feedbacks, agricultural management, and water resources","volume":"53","author":"Fisher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2009.05.016","article-title":"Advances in thermal infrared remote sensing for land surface modeling","volume":"149","author":"Kustas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"175","article-title":"Operational evapotranspiration estimates from SEVIRI in support of sustainable water management","volume":"49","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2415","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2001)082<2415:FANTTS>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities","volume":"82","author":"Baldocchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2012.03.010","article-title":"Overview of the Bushland Evapotranspiration and Agricultural Remote sensing EXperiment 2008 (BEAREX08): A field experiment evaluating methods for quantifying ET at multiple scales","volume":"50","author":"Evett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S.M., Li, X., Xu, Z.W., Che, T., Xiao, Q., Ma, M.M., Liu, Q.H., Jin, R., Guo, J.W., and Wang, L.X. (2018). The Heihe integrated observatory network: A basin-scale land surface processes observatory in China. Vadose Zone J., 17.","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2018.04.0072"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09396","article-title":"Recent decline in the global land evapotranspiration trend due to limited moisture supply","volume":"467","author":"Jung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G00J07","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JG001566","article-title":"Global patterns of land-atmosphere fluxes of carbon dioxide, latent heat, and sensible heat derived from eddy covariance, satellite, and meteorological observations","volume":"116","author":"Jung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, T., Guo, Z., Liu, S., He, X., Meng, Y., Xu, Z., Xia, Y., Xiao, J., Zhang, Y., and Ma, Y. (2018). Evaluating different machine learning methods for upscaling evapotranspiration from flux towers to the regional scale. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 123.","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD028447"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"D20112","article-title":"Evidence for decadal variation in global terrestrial evapotranspiration between 1982 and 2002: 1. Model development","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JHM911.1","article-title":"An improved method for estimating global evapotranspiration based on satellite determination of surface net radiation, vegetation index, temperature, and soil moisture","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, W., Jia, S., and Lv, A. (2017). A universal Ts-VI triangle method for the continuous retrieval of evaporative fraction from MODIS products. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 122.","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD026964"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, B., Mao, K., Cai, Y., Shi, J., Li, Z., Qin, Z., and Meng, X. (2019). A combined Terra and Aqua MODIS land surface temperature and meteorological station data product for China from 2003\u20132017. Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., in review.","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-2019-155"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-1775-2009","article-title":"Regional estimation of daily to annual regional evapotranspiration with MODIS data in the Yellow River Delta wetland","volume":"13","author":"Jia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.07.019","article-title":"Estimation of daily evapotranspiration and irrigation water efciency at a Landsat-like scale for an arid irrigation area using multi-source remote sensing data","volume":"216","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-453-2011","article-title":"Global land-surface evaporation estimated from satellite-based observations","volume":"15","author":"Miralles","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.05.013","article-title":"A satellite-based hybrid algorithm to determine the Priestley-Taylor parameter for global terrestrial latent heat flux estimation across multiple biomes","volume":"165","author":"Yao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1168","article-title":"A review of remote sensing based actual evapotranspiration estimation","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.12.039","article-title":"Variational assimilation of land surface temperature and the estimation of surface energy balance components","volume":"481","author":"Bateni","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20071","article-title":"Mapping evaporation and estimation of surface control of evaporation using remotely sensed land surface temperature from a constellation of satellites","volume":"49","author":"Bateni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X.L., Xu, T.R., Bateni, S.M., Neale, C.M.U., Auligne, T., Liu, S.M., Wang, K.C., Mao, K.B., and Yao, Y.J. (2018). Evaluation of the Weak Constraint Data Assimilation Approach for Estimating Turbulent Heat Fluxes at Six Sites. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10121994"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X.L., Xu, T.R., Bateni, S.M., Neale, C.M.U., Liu, S.M., Auligne, T., Wang, K.C., and Zhu, S.D. (2019). Mapping Regional Turbulent Heat Fluxes via Assimilation of MODIS Land Surface Temperature Data into an Ensemble Kalman Smoother Framework. Earth Space Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.1029\/2019EA000705"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X.L., Xu, T.R., Bateni, S.M., Ek, M., Liu, S.M., and Chen, F. (2020). Mapping Regional Evapotranspiration in Cloudy Skies via Variational Assimilation of All-Weather Land Surface Temperature Observations. J. Hydrol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124790"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10858","DOI":"10.1002\/2017WR021415","article-title":"Mapping surface heat fluxes by assimilating SMAP soil moisture and GOES land surface temperature data","volume":"53","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD021814","article-title":"Estimation of surface turbulent heat fluxes via variational assimilation of sequences of land surface temperatures from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites","volume":"119","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.11.023","article-title":"Mapping Regional Turbulent Heat Fluxes via Variational Assimilation of Land Surface Temperature Data from Polar Orbiting Satellites","volume":"221","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0089.1","article-title":"The Canadian Land Data Assimilation System (CaLDAS): Description and synthetic evaluation study","volume":"16","author":"Carrera","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-019-8172-4","article-title":"Regional and Global Land Data Assimilation Systems: Innovations, Challenges, and Prospects","volume":"33","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JHM1300.1","article-title":"Improving predictions of water and heat fluxes by assimilating MODIS land surface temperature products into common land model","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2019.107810","article-title":"Evaluation and comparison of multiple evapotranspiration data models over the contiguous United States: Implications for the next phase of NLDAS (NLDAS-Testbed) development","volume":"280","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.015","article-title":"Development of a global evapotranspiration algorithm based on MODIS and global meteorology data","volume":"111","author":"Mu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.019","article-title":"Improvements to a MODIS global terrestrial evapotranspiration algorithm","volume":"115","author":"Mu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"224","article-title":"Etwatch: Models and methods","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2514121","article-title":"An improved method for deriving daily evapotranspiration estimates from satellite estimates on cloud-free days","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4521","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020864","article-title":"Bayesian multimodel estimation of global terrestrial latent heat flux from eddy covariance, meteorological, and satellite observations","volume":"119","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"146","article-title":"Improving terrestrial evaporation estimates over continental Australia through assimilation of SMOS soil moisture","volume":"48","author":"Martens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-1903-2017","article-title":"GLEAM v3: Satellite\u2013based land evaporation and root\u2013zone soil moisture","volume":"10","author":"Martens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D07S90","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003823","article-title":"The multi\u2013institution North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS): Utilizing multiple GCIP products and partners in a continental distributed hydrological modeling system","volume":"109","author":"Mitchell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014581","article-title":"Uncertainty in evapotranspiration from land surface modeling, remote sensing, and GRACE satellites","volume":"50","author":"Long","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2019.124105","article-title":"Evaluation of twelve evapotranspiration products from machine learning, remote sensing and land surface models over conterminous united states","volume":"578","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-9-283-2016","article-title":"The GEWEX LandFlux project: Evaluation of model evaporation using tower-based and globally gridded forcing data","volume":"9","author":"McCabe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D18123","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD013654","article-title":"Bayesian estimation of local signal and noise in multimodel simulations of climate change","volume":"115","author":"Duan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Houghton, J.T.A. (2001). Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1997.10473615","article-title":"Bayesian model averaging for linear regression models","volume":"92","author":"Raftery","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR2906.1","article-title":"Using Bayesian model averaging to calibrate forecast ensembles","volume":"133","author":"Raftery","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D22107","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD017567","article-title":"Estimation of clear-sky land surface longwave radiation from MODIS data products by merging multiple models","volume":"117","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-87-10-1381","article-title":"GSWP-2: Multimodel analysis and implications for our perception of the land surface","volume":"87","author":"Dirmeyer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2017.04.011","article-title":"Improving global terrestrial evapotranspiration estimation using support vector machine by integrating three process-based algorithms","volume":"242","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-22-1317-2018","article-title":"Derived Optimal Linear Combination Evapotranspiration (DOLCE): A global gridded synthesis ET estimate","volume":"22","author":"Hobeichi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Burba, G., and Anderson, D. (2010). A Brief Practical Guide to Eddy Covariance Flux Measurements: Principles and Workflow Examples for Scientific and Industrial Applications, LI-COR Biosciences."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L24403","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL035599","article-title":"A possible solution for the problem of estimating the error structure of global soil moisture data sets","volume":"35","author":"Scipal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1109\/19.206671","article-title":"A revisited three-cornered hat method for estimating frequency standard instability","volume":"42","author":"Premoli","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8415","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065929","article-title":"Robust estimates of soil moisture and latent heat flux coupling strength obtained from triple collocation","volume":"42","author":"Crow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015015","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.10.015015","article-title":"Uncertainties of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment time\u2013variable gravity-field solutions based on three-cornered hat method","volume":"10","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2018.01.022","article-title":"Stand\u2013alone uncertainty characterization of GLEAM, GLDAS and MOD16 evapotranspiration products using an extended triple collocation approach","volume":"252","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11502","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011682","article-title":"An objective methodology for merging satellite- and model-based soil moisture products","volume":"48","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"671","article-title":"ETWatch for monitoring regional evapotranspiration with remote sensing","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Rater Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1111\/jawr.12057","article-title":"Operational evapotranspiration mapping using remote sensing and weather datasets: A new parameterization for the SSEB approach","volume":"49","author":"Senay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JHM1285.1","article-title":"Estimating spatial sampling errors in coarse\u2013scale soil moisture estimates derived from point\u2013scale observations","volume":"11","author":"Miralles","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-823-2016","article-title":"The WACMOS-ET project\u2014Part 2: Evaluation of global terrestrial evaporation data sets","volume":"20","author":"Miralles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Burnash, R.J.C., Ferral, R.L., and McGuire, R.A. (1973). A Generalized Stream Flow Simulation System. Conceptual Modeling for Digital Computer, State Department of Water Resources."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1000531001463","article-title":"Impact of atmospheric surface-layer parameterizations in the new land-surface scheme of the NCEP mesoscale Eta model","volume":"85","author":"Chen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteor."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/0309-1708(94)90024-8","article-title":"The components of the SVAT scheme and their effects on a GCM\u2019s hydrological cycle","volume":"17","author":"Koster","year":"1994","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900327","article-title":"A catchment-based approach to modeling land surface processes in a general circulation model 1. Model structure","volume":"105","author":"Koster","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1029\/94JD00483","article-title":"A simple hydrologically based model of land surface water and energy fluxes for general circulation models","volume":"99","author":"Liang","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1","article-title":"Continental-scale water and energy flux analysis and validation for the North American Land Data Assimilation System project phase 2 (NLDAS-2): 1. Intercomparison and application of model products","volume":"17","author":"Xia","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"1","article-title":"Continental-scale water and energy flux analysis and validation for North American Land Data Assimilation System project phase 2 (NLDAS-2): 2. Validation of model-simulated streamflow","volume":"117","author":"Xia","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.10299","article-title":"Evaluation of NLDAS-2 evapotranspiration against tower flux site observations","volume":"29","author":"Xia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.10190","article-title":"Improved NLDAS-2 Noah-simulated hydrometeorological products with an interim run","volume":"29","author":"Xia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2750","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023733","article-title":"Basin-scale assessment of the land surface water budget in the National Centers for environmental prediction operational and research NLDAS-2 systems","volume":"121","author":"Xia","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-11-00241.1","article-title":"NOAA\u2019s merged land\u2013ocean surface temperature analysis","volume":"93","author":"Vose","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-13-0248.1","article-title":"Improved historical temperature and precipitation time series for US climate divisions","volume":"53","author":"Vose","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011453","article-title":"Accuracy of scaled GRACE terrestrial water storage estimates","volume":"48","author":"Landerer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2574","DOI":"10.1002\/2014WR016853","article-title":"Global analysis of approaches for deriving total water storage changes from GRACE satellites","volume":"51","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jian, X., Wolock, D., and Lins, H. (2008). WaterWatch-Maps, Graphs, and Tables of Current, Recent, and Past Streamflow Conditions, United States Geological Survey. Report.","DOI":"10.3133\/fs20083031"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0112.1","article-title":"Comparison and Assessment of Three Advanced Land Surface Models (CLSM\u2013F2.5_NoahMP_CLM4.0) in Simulating Terrestrial Water Storage Components over the United States","volume":"18","author":"Xia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Vermote, E., Justice, C., Csiszar, I., Eidenshink, J., Myneni, R., Baret, F., Masuoka, E., Wolfe, R.E., and Claverie, M. (2014). NOAA CDR Program: NOAA Climate Data Record (CDR) of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. Version 4. [indicate subset used]."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-2001-2009","article-title":"Towards global empirical upscaling of FLUXNET eddy covariance observations: Validation of a model tree ensemble approach using a biosphere model","volume":"6","author":"Jung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, J.E., and Allan, D.W. (1974, January 29\u201331). A method for estimating the frequency stability of an individual oscillator. Proceedings of the 28th Annual Symposium on Frequency Control, Atlantic City, NJ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/FREQ.1974.200027"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1088\/0026-1394\/30\/5\/003","article-title":"Estimating the instabilities of N clocks by measuring differences of their readings","volume":"30","author":"Tavella","year":"1994","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S237","DOI":"10.1088\/0026-1394\/40\/3\/301","article-title":"Post-processing ROA data clocks for optimal stability in the ensemble timescale","volume":"40","author":"Galindo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Galindo, F.J., and Palacio, J. (1999, January 7\u20139). Estimating the instabilities of N correlated clocks. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Meeting, Dana Point, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Torcaso, F., Ekstrom, C., Burt, E., and Matsakis, D. (1998, January 1\u20133). Estimating frequency stability and cross-correlations. Proceedings of the 30th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Meeting, Reston, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008800","article-title":"A continuous satellite-derived global record of land surface evapotranspiration from 1983 to 2006","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.07.013","article-title":"A comprehensive evaluation of two MODIS evapotranspiration products over the conterminous United States: Using point and gridded FLUXNET and water balance ET","volume":"139","author":"Velpuri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9097","DOI":"10.1029\/1998JD200088","article-title":"Seasonal cycle and interannual variability in the Amazon hydrologic cycle","volume":"104","author":"Zeng","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2307\/1907187","article-title":"Non-parametric test against trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Kendall, M.G. (1975). Rank Correlation Methods, Charles Griffin. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-016-0479-4","article-title":"Analysis and prediction of rainfall trends over Bangladesh using Mann\u2013Kendall, Spearman\u2019s rho tests and ARIMA model","volume":"129","author":"Rahman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"892","article-title":"Trends in hydrological and climatic variables affected by four variations of the Mann-Kendall approach in Urmia Lake basin","volume":"61","author":"Fathian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Iran. Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"40","article-title":"Surface air temperature trends during the last 20 years in Iran","volume":"4","author":"Rezaie","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(01)00594-7","article-title":"Power of the Mann-Kendall and Spearman\u2019s tests for detecting monotonic trends in hydrological series","volume":"259","author":"Yue","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Haan, C.T. (1977). Statistical Methods in Hydrology, Iowa State University Press."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3565","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bth445","article-title":"Discovery of meaningful associations in genomic data using partial correlation coefficients","volume":"20","author":"Bing","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Thorndike, R.M. (1976). Correlational Procedures for Research, Gardner Press Inc."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.2307\/3899784","article-title":"A hand-portable single nozzle rainfall simulator designed for use on steep slopes","volume":"39","author":"Wilcox","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Range Manag."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.02.011","article-title":"Global analysis of spatiotemporal variability in merged total water storage changes using multiple GRACE products and global hydrological models","volume":"192","author":"Long","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1002\/2017WR020473","article-title":"High-elevation evapotranspiration estimates during drought: Using streamflow and NASA airborne snow observatory SWE observations to close the upper tuolumne river basin water balance","volume":"54","author":"Henn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GL012321","article-title":"Trends in evaporation and surface cooling in the Mississippi River basin","volume":"28","author":"Milly","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2004)005<0405:IEFTCU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Increasing evapotranspiration from the conterminous United States","volume":"5","author":"Walter","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W04510","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011357","article-title":"Relative efficiency of land surface energy balance components","volume":"48","author":"Bateni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W06418","DOI":"10.1029\/2007WR006385","article-title":"Drying front and water content dynamics during evaporation from sand delineated by neutron radiography","volume":"44","author":"Shokri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"W02415","article-title":"Characteristics of evaporation from partially wettable porous media","volume":"45","author":"Shokri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/5\/878\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:05:32Z","timestamp":1760173532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/5\/878"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,9]]},"references-count":106,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12050878"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12050878","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,9]]}}}