{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T22:09:26Z","timestamp":1761948566326,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585008000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Vice-Chancellor\u2019s Discretionary Fund of The Chinese University of Hong Kong","award":["4930744"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4930744"]}]},{"name":"Dr. Stanley Ho Medicine Development Foundation","award":["8305509"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8305509"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heatwaves and air pollution are serious environmental problems that adversely affect human health. While related studies have typically employed ground-level data, the long-term and episodic characteristics of meteorology and air quality at higher altitudes have yet to be fully understood. This study developed a 3-Dimensional Real-timE Atmospheric Monitoring System (3DREAMS) to measure and analyze the vertical profiles of horizontal wind speed and direction, vertical wind velocity as well as aerosol backscatter. The system was applied to Hong Kong, a highly dense city with complex topography, during each season and including hot-and-polluted episodes (HPEs) in 2019. The results reveal that the high spatial wind variability and wind characteristics in the lower atmosphere in Hong Kong can extend upwards by up to 0.66 km, thus highlighting the importance of mountains for the wind environment in the city. Both upslope and downslope winds were observed at one site, whereas downward air motions predominated at another site. The high temperature and high concentration of fine particulate matter during HPEs were caused by a significant reduction in both horizontal and vertical wind speeds that established conditions favorable for heat and air pollutant accumulation, and by the prevailing westerly wind promoting transboundary air pollution. The findings of this study are anticipated to provide valuable insight for weather forecasting and air quality studies. The 3DREAMS will be further developed to monitor upper atmosphere wind and air quality over the Greater Bay Area of China.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12061036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T07:16:08Z","timestamp":1585034168000},"page":"1036","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Development of a 3D Real-Time Atmospheric Monitoring System (3DREAMS) Using Doppler LiDARs and Applications for Long-Term Analysis and Hot-and-Polluted Episodes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2826-0950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steve Hung Lam","family":"YIM","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Stanley Ho Big Data Decision Analytics Research Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Institute of Environment, Energy and Sustainability, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092666","article-title":"Global Air Quality and Pollution","volume":"302","author":"Akimoto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/1352-2310(95)00219-7","article-title":"Urban air pollution in megacities of the world","volume":"30","author":"Mage","year":"1996","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2141","article-title":"Mega-heatwave temperatures due to combined soil desiccation and atmospheric heat accumulation","volume":"7","author":"Miralles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perkins, S.E., Alexander, L.V., and Nairn, J.R. (2012). Increasing frequency, intensity and duration of observed global heatwaves and warm spells. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL053361"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b03709","article-title":"Ambient Air Pollution Exposure Estimation for the Global Burden of Disease 2013","volume":"50","author":"Brauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6","article-title":"Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)14555-2","article-title":"Lessons from the French heatwave","volume":"362","author":"Grynszpan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.08.004","article-title":"The air quality and health impacts of domestic trans-boundary pollution in various regions of China","volume":"97","author":"Gu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084008","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aad138","article-title":"Impacts of sectoral emissions in China and the implications: Air quality, public health, crop production, and economic costs","volume":"13","author":"Gu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034005","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aaf493","article-title":"Impacts of transboundary air pollution and local emissions on PM2.5 pollution in the Pearl River Delta region of China and the public health, and the policy implications","volume":"14","author":"Hou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6141","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-6141-2018","article-title":"Impacts of air pollutants from fire and non-fire emissions on the regional air quality in Southeast Asia","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(77)91385-X","article-title":"Effects of a Heatwave on mortality-rates in elderly inpatients","volume":"309","author":"Lye","year":"1977","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199607113350203","article-title":"Heat-Related Deaths during the July 1995 Heat Wave in Chicago","volume":"335","author":"Semenza","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.01.116","article-title":"Source contributions of surface ozone in China using an adjoint sensitivity analysis","volume":"662","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"S. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Chan, A., Lau, G.N.-C., Li, Q., Yang, Y., and Yim, S.H.L. (2019). Effects of urbanization and global climate change on regional climate in the Pearl River Delta and thermal comfort implications. Int. J. Climatol., in press.","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5996"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11568","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030562","article-title":"Effect of Urbanization on Ozone and Resultant Health Effects in the Pearl River Delta Region of China","volume":"124","author":"Yim","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4291","DOI":"10.1021\/es2040416","article-title":"Public Health Impacts of Combustion Emissions in the United Kingdom","volume":"46","author":"Yim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034001","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/3\/034001","article-title":"Global, regional and local health impacts of civil aviation emissions","volume":"10","author":"Yim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.10.017","article-title":"Air quality and public health impacts of UK airports. Part II: Impacts and policy assessment","volume":"67","author":"Yim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.06.057","article-title":"Ozone photochemistry and elevated isoprene during the UK heatwave of august 2003","volume":"40","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2003.11.011","article-title":"The predicted number of air pollution related deaths in the UK during the August 2003 heatwave","volume":"38","author":"Stedman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13309","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-13309-2019","article-title":"Air quality and acid deposition impacts of local emissions and transboundary air pollution in Japan and South Korea","volume":"19","author":"Yim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Ming, Y., Zhao, C., Lau, N.C., Guo, J., and Yim, S.H.L. (2018). Contribution of local and remote anthropogenic aerosols to intensification of a record-breaking torrential rainfall event in Guangdong province. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 1\u201335.","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-2018-977"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.02.039","article-title":"Assessing the impacts of seasonal and vertical atmospheric conditions on air quality over the Pearl River Delta region","volume":"180","author":"Tong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.11.001","article-title":"Trans-boundary air pollution in a city under various atmospheric conditions","volume":"618","author":"Luo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2018.10.021","article-title":"Contribution of local emissions and transboundary air pollution to air quality in Hong Kong during El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation and heatwaves","volume":"218","author":"Yim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.08.053","article-title":"Projecting the impacts of atmospheric conditions under climate change on air quality over the Pearl River Delta region","volume":"193","author":"Tong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2019.117026","article-title":"Mapping ozone source-receptor relationship and apportioning the health impact in the Pearl River Delta region using adjoint sensitivity analysis","volume":"222","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0135749","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0135749","article-title":"Air pollution in China: Mapping of concentrations and sources","volume":"10","author":"Rohde","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.08.016","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variations of six criteria air pollutants in 31 provincial capital cities in China during 2013\u20132014","volume":"73","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5700","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073533","article-title":"Declining frequency of summertime local-scale precipitation over eastern China from 1970 to 2010 and its potential link to aerosols","volume":"44","author":"Guo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6472","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023257","article-title":"Delaying precipitation and lightning by air pollution over the Pearl River Delta. Part I: Observational analyses","volume":"121","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.03.068","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variation trends of satellite-based aerosol optical depth in China during 1980\u20132008","volume":"45","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2016.05.010","article-title":"Three-dimensional structure of aerosol in China: A perspective from multi-satellite observations","volume":"178","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13309","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-16-13309-2016","article-title":"The climatology of planetary boundary layer height in China derived from radiosonde and reanalysis data","volume":"16","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6080","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL082666","article-title":"Shift in the Temporal Trend of Boundary Layer Height in China Using Long-Term (1979\u20132016) Radiosonde Data","volume":"46","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49709239205","article-title":"Lidar: A new atmospheric probe","volume":"92","author":"Collis","year":"1966","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milroy, C., Martucci, G., Lolli, S., Loaec, S., Sauvage, L., Xueref-Remy, I., Lavri\u010d, J.V., Ciais, P., Feist, D.G., and Biavati, G. (2020, February 07). An Assessment of Pseudo-Operational Ground-Based Light Detection and Ranging Sensors to Determine the Boundary-Layer Structure in the Coastal Atmosphere. Available online: https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/amete\/2012\/929080\/.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/929080"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3349","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-6-3349-2013","article-title":"0.355-micrometer direct detection wind lidar under testing during a field campaign in consideration of ESA\u2019s ADM-Aeolus mission","volume":"6","author":"Lolli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1002\/wea.48","article-title":"Doppler lidar observations of Russian forest fire plumes over Helsinki","volume":"62","author":"Bozier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Weather"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5891","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-10-5891-2010","article-title":"Remote sensing of the tropical rain forest boundary layer using pulsed Doppler lidar","volume":"10","author":"Pearson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JTECHA1128.1","article-title":"An Analysis of the Performance of the UFAM Pulsed Doppler Lidar for Observing the Boundary Layer","volume":"26","author":"Pearson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1458.1","article-title":"Generation of an Eddy Dissipation Rate Map at the Hong Kong International Airport Based on Doppler Lidar Data","volume":"28","author":"Chan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-11-00086.1","article-title":"Application of Short-Range Lidar in Wind Shear Alerting","volume":"29","author":"Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1430","article-title":"Application of LIDAR-derived eddy dissipation rate profiles in low-level wind shear and turbulence alerts at Hong Kong International Airport","volume":"21","author":"Hon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JTECHA1057.1","article-title":"Applications of an Infrared Doppler Lidar in Detection of Wind Shear","volume":"25","author":"Shun","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.01.135","article-title":"Observations of offshore wind characteristics by Doppler-LiDAR for wind energy applications","volume":"169","author":"Shu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(00)00335-6","article-title":"Internal boundary layer structure under sea-breeze conditions in Hong Kong","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9609","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD031140","article-title":"Characteristics of Heavy Particulate Matter Pollution Events over Hong Kong and Their Relationships with Vertical Wind Profiles Using High-Time-Resolution Doppler Lidar Measurements","volume":"124","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007752","article-title":"Developing a high-resolution wind map for a complex terrain with a coupled MM5\/CALMET system","volume":"112","author":"Yim","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hofs\u00e4\u00df, M., Clifton, A., and Cheng, P.W. (2018). Reducing the Uncertainty of Lidar Measurements in Complex Terrain Using a Linear Model Approach. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091465"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pauscher, L., Vasiljevic, N., Callies, D., Lea, G., Mann, J., Klaas, T., Hieronimus, J., Gottschall, J., Schwesig, A., and K\u00fchn, M. (2016). An Inter-Comparison Study of Multi-and DBS Lidar Measurements in Complex Terrain. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090782"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2009\/0368","article-title":"Conically scanning lidar error in complex terrain","volume":"18","author":"Mann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2008.085167","article-title":"A study of intracity variation of temperature-related mortality and socioeconomic status among the Chinese population in Hong Kong","volume":"66","author":"Chan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pal Arya, S. (1999). Air Pollution Meteorology and Dispersion, Oxford University Press."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/6\/1036\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:10:56Z","timestamp":1760173856000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/6\/1036"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12061036"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12061036","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]}}}