{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T17:04:09Z","timestamp":1784135049071,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585008000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41605122, 61701172, 41775032, 61801170, 61501405, 61801435, U1404615, 61671144, U1504619"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41605122, 61701172, 41775032, 61801170, 61501405, 61801435, U1404615, 61671144, U1504619"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National\u00a0Thirteen Five Equipment Research Fund","award":["6140311030207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6140311030207"]}]},{"name":"National Key\u00a0Research and\u00a0Development\u00a0Plan","award":["2018YFB0904905"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFB0904905"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China\u00a0Postdoctoral Science\u00a0Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018M633351"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018M633351"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences President\u2019s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS PIFI) for Visiting Scientists","award":["2018VTA0013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018VTA0013"]}]},{"name":"LAGEO IAP CAS Fund","award":["LAGEO-2019-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LAGEO-2019-2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High-resolution and accurate rainfall monitoring is of great importance to many applications, including meteorology, hydrology, and flood monitoring. In recent years, microwave backhaul links from wireless communication networks have been suggested for rainfall monitoring purposes, complementing the existing monitoring systems. With the advances in microwave technology, new microwave backhaul solutions have been proposed and applied for 5G networks. Examples of the latest microwave technology include E-band (71\u201376 and 81\u201386 GHz) links, multi-band boosters, and line-of-sight multiple-input multiple-output (LOS-MIMO) backhaul links. They all rely on millimeter-wave (mmWave) technology, which is the fastest small-cell backhaul solution. In this paper, we will study the rain attenuation characteristics of these new microwave backhaul techniques at different mmWave frequencies and link lengths. We will also study the potential of using these new microwave solutions for rainfall monitoring. Preliminary results indicate that all the test mmWave links can be very effective for estimating the path-averaged rain rates. The correlation between the mmWave link measurement-derived rain rate and the local rain gauge is in the range of 0.8 to 0.9, showing a great potential to use these links for precipitation and flood monitoring in urban areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12061045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T13:04:04Z","timestamp":1585055044000},"page":"1045","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Rainfall Monitoring Based on Next-Generation Millimeter-Wave Backhaul Technologies in a Dense Urban Environment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9256-5452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Congzheng","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Huo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingquan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guiyang","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Provincial Meteorological Observatory, Hangzhou 310002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-3879-2017","article-title":"The future of earth observation in hydrology","volume":"21","author":"McCabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2017.1420191","article-title":"Measurements and observations in the XXI century (MOXXI): Innovation and multi-disciplinarity to sense the hydrological cycle","volume":"63","author":"Tauro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gazit, L., and Messer, H. (2018). Advancements in the statistical study, modeling, and simulation of microwave-links in cellular backhaul networks. Environments, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments5070075"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3185","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4210","article-title":"Crowdsourcing for climate and atmospheric sciences: Current status and future potential","volume":"35","author":"Muller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2020, January 31). Ericsson Mobility Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.ericsson.com\/assets\/local\/microwave-outlook\/documents\/ericsson-microwave-outlook-report-2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, B., Li, Y., Chen, S., Han, C., Li, C., and Hong, W. (2020). Secrecy Outage Analysis of UAV Assisted Relay and Antenna Selection for Cognitive Network under Nakagami-m Channel. IEEE Trans. Cogn. Commun. Netw. Spec. Issue AI-based Licens.\/Unlicensed Spectr. Interoperability Future Mob. Wirel. Syst., 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1109\/TCCN.2020.2965945"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2014.6894457","article-title":"Millimeter-wave access and backhauling: The solution to the exponential data traffic increase in 5G mobile communications systems","volume":"52","author":"Dehos","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2020, January 31). Studies on Frequency-Related Matters for International Mobile Telecommunications Identification Including Possible Additional Allocations to the Mobile Services on a Primary Basis in Portion(s) of the Frequency Range Between 24.25 and 86 GHz for the Future Development of International Mobile Telecommunications for 2020 and Beyond. Resolution 238 (WRC-15). Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/dms_pub\/itu-r\/oth\/0c\/0a\/R0C0A00000C0014PDFE.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2020, January 31). Agenda and Reference (Resolutions and Recommendations), ITU. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/dms_pub\/itu-r\/oth\/14\/02\/R14020000010001PDFE.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2020, January 31). Frequency Band Review for Fixed Wireless Services. Final Report Prepared for Ofcom, Document 2315\/FLBR\/FRP\/3. Available online: http:\/\/stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk\/binaries\/consultations\/spectrum-review\/annexes\/report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2017.2655509","article-title":"OFDM based multi-node transmission in the presence of phase noises for small cell backhaul","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Daniels, G. (2020, January 31). Deutsche Telekom Achieves Fiber-like Results with MmWave Wireless Backhaul for 5G. Available online: https:\/\/www.telecomtv.com\/content\/news\/deutsche-telekom-achieves-fiber-like-results-with-mmwave-wireless-backhaul-for-5g-33773\/."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2767014","article-title":"Effect of rain on millimeter-wave propagation\u2014A review","volume":"923","author":"Sen","year":"2007","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, C., Duan, S., Bao, L., Zhang, G., Ji, B., and Ran, L. (2019, January 22\u201325). E-Band Link for Next Generation Small-Cell Backhaul in Dense Urban Environment. Proceedings of the IEEE VTC 2019 Fall, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2019.8891567"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2011.5783984","article-title":"Green radio: Radio techniques to enable energy efficient wireless networks","volume":"49","author":"Han","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag. Spec. Issue Green Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"130","article-title":"MIMO techniques for green radio guranteeing QoS","volume":"12","author":"Nicolaou","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Commun. Netw. Spec. Issue Green Radio Energy Effic. Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4000","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2680435","article-title":"Millimeter-wave transmission for small-cell backhaul in dense urban environment: A solution based on MIMO-OFDM and space-time shift keying (STSK)","volume":"5","author":"Sacchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"22","article-title":"Microwave capacity evolution","volume":"88","author":"Hansryd","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ericsson Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rundstedt, K., Bao, L., Krishnan, R., Olsson, B.-E., and Eriksson, T. (2015, January 6\u201310). On Field Measurements and Modelling of 2 \u00d7 2 Microwave LOS-MIMO Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2015.7417256"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045084","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/45084","article-title":"optimal design of uniform rectangular antenna arrays for strong line-of-sight MIMO channels","volume":"2007","author":"Orten","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Zhao, Q., and Li, J. (2006, January 26\u201329). Rain attenuation in millimeter wave ranges. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Antennas, Propagation, & EM Theory, Guilin, China."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Coldrey, M., Allasia, A., Bao, L., Boch, E., Ferrari, G., Gentina, D., Putkonen, J., Sutton, A., Yigal, L., and Zein, N. (2015). Maturity and Field Proven Experience of Millimeter Wave Transmission, ETSI White Paper."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2008.919158","article-title":"Cumulative Fading and Rainfall Distributions for a 2.1 km, 38 GHz, Vertically Polarized, Line-of-Sight Link","volume":"56","author":"Forknall","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113626","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2933025","article-title":"Impact of atmospheric parameters on the propagated signal power of millimeter-wave bands based on real measurement data","volume":"7","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-015-0942-z","article-title":"A survey of millimeter wave (mmWave) communications for 5G: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"21","author":"Niu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, C., and Duan, S. (2019, January 9\u201315). The study on characteristics of rain attenuation along 28 ghz and 38 ghz line-of-sight millimeter-wave links. Proceedings of the 2019 URSI Asia-Pacific Radio Science Conference (AP-RASC), New Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.23919\/URSIAP-RASC.2019.8738378"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Liebe, H.J., Hufford, G.A., and Cotton, M.G. (1993, January 17\u201320). Propagation modeling of moist air and suspended water\/ice particles at frequencies below 1000GHz. Proceedings of the Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Panel Symposium, AGARD Conference Proceedings, Palma, Spain."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"ITU-R P. 838\u20133 (International Telecommunication Union Radio Communication Bureau Propagation Recommendation) (2005). Specific Attenuation Model for Rain for Use in Prediction Methods, ITU-R."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1965.1138472","article-title":"Rainfall attenuation of centimeter waves: Comparison of theory and measurement","volume":"13","author":"Medhurst","year":"1965","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Messer, H. (2018). Capitalizing on cellular technology\u2014Opportunities and challenges for near ground weather monitoring. Environ. Sci. Technol., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments5070073"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1289","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1289","article-title":"Opportunistic remote sensing of rainfall using microwave links from cellular communication networks","volume":"5","author":"Uijlenhoet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1337","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1337","article-title":"Commercial microwave link networks for rainfall observation: Assessment of the current status and future challenges","volume":"6","author":"Chwala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5409612","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5409612","article-title":"A new multiple-symbol differential detection strategy for error-floor elimination of IEEE 802.15.4 BPSK receivers impaired by carrier frequency offset","volume":"2019","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6213","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2017.2734243","article-title":"Overview of millimeter wave communications for fifth-generation (5G) wireless networks-with a focus on propagation models","volume":"65","author":"Rappaport","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"ITU-R P. 676\u201310 (International Telecommunication Union Radio communication Bureau Propagation Recommendation) (2013). Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases, ITU-R."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2425","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-2425-2016","article-title":"Retrieval algorithm for rainfall mapping from microwave links in a cellular communication network","volume":"9","author":"Overeem","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2835","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2019.2918507","article-title":"Rain rate retrieval test from 25 GHz, 28 GHz, and 38 GHz millimeter-wave link measurement in Beijing","volume":"12","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Bao, L., Olsson, B.-E., and Hansryd, J. (2018, January 9\u201313). On measurements of availability penalty due to antenna separation in a 2 \u00d7 2 LOS-MIMO Link. Proceedings of the EuCAP, London, UK."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2020, January 31). Davis Wireless Vantage Pro2 Weather Station 6322. Available online: https:\/\/www.davisnet.com\/weather-monitoring\/."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2017.2767620","article-title":"The wet-antenna effect\u2014A factor to be considered in future communication networks","volume":"66","author":"Ostrmetzky","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JHM1243.1","article-title":"Errors and uncertainties in microwave link rainfall estimation explored using drop size measurements and high resolution radar data","volume":"11","author":"Leijnse","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-3-1385-2010","article-title":"Prediction of rainfall intensity measurement errors using commercial microwave communication links","volume":"3","author":"Zinevich","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raich, R., Alpert, P., and Messer, H. (2018). Vertical prediction estimation using microwave links in conjunction with weather radar. Environments, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments5070074"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eshel, A., Messer, H., Osttrometzky, J., Raich, R., Alpert, P., and Laronne, J.B. (2017). On the use of measurements from a commercial microwave link for evaluation of flash floods in arid regions. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-2017-963"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi3020584","article-title":"A conceptual flash flood early warning system for Africa, based on terrestrial microwave links and flash flood guidance","volume":"3","author":"Hoedjes","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRT Int. J. Geo-Inf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3549","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-3549-2014","article-title":"New algorithm for integration between wireless microwave sensor network and radar for improved rainfall measurement and mapping","volume":"7","author":"Liberman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/6\/1045\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:11:09Z","timestamp":1760173869000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/6\/1045"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12061045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12061045","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]}}}