{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:54:04Z","timestamp":1760237644480,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]],"date-time":"2020-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1591833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Taurus-Littrow valley on the Moon was the location of intensive geologic fieldwork during three days in December 1972. In situ activities at sampling stations were systematically documented by the astronauts using a series of overlapping images taken with their Hasselblad cameras. We investigated how this Apollo image archive can be used to perform 3-D reconstructions of several boulders of interest using close-range photogrammetry. We specifically focused on seven different boulders located at Stations 2, 6, and 7, at the foot of South and North Massifs, respectively. These boulders represent samples from highland materials, which rolled down the slopes of the surrounding hills. We used the Agisoft Metashape software to compute 3-D reconstructions of these boulders, using 173 scanned images as input. We then used either a web-based platform or a game engine to render the models in virtual reality. This allowed the users to walk around the boulders and to investigate in detail their morphology, fractures, vesicles, color variations, and sampling spots, as if standing directly in front of them with the astronauts. This work suggests that many features can be reconstructed in other sites of the Apollo missions, so as other robotic landing sites. Virtual reality techniques coupled to photogrammetry is thus opening a new era of exploration, both for past and future landing sites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12111900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]],"date-time":"2020-06-15T05:56:27Z","timestamp":1592200587000},"page":"1900","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Investigating Lunar Boulders at the Apollo 17 Landing Site Using Photogrammetry and Virtual Reality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5260-1367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"St\u00e9phane","family":"Le Mou\u00e9lic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, CNRS UMR6112, Universit\u00e9 de Nantes, 44322 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pauline","family":"Enguehard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, CNRS UMR6112, Universit\u00e9 de Nantes, 44322 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Harrison H.","family":"Schmitt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, P.O. Box 90730, Albuquerque, NM 87199, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4138-0471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gw\u00e9na\u00ebl","family":"Caravaca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, CNRS UMR6112, Universit\u00e9 de Nantes, 44322 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6533-275X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beno\u00eet","family":"Seignovert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Mangold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, CNRS UMR6112, Universit\u00e9 de Nantes, 44322 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean-Philippe","family":"Combe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bear Fight Institute, 22 Fiddler\u2019s Road, Winthrop, WA 98862, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Civet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VR2Planets, 44322 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGreevy, M.W. (1993). Virtual reality and planetary exploration. Virtual Reality, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-745045-2.50018-0"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"405","article-title":"The interpretation of structure from motion","volume":"203","author":"Ullman","year":"1979","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.399","article-title":"Taking computer vision aloft-archaeological three-dimensional reconstructions from aerial photographs with photoscan","volume":"18","author":"Verhoeven","year":"2011","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2011.09.012","article-title":"Multiview 3D reconstruction in geosciences","volume":"44","author":"Favalli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbu\u00e9es, P., Garc\u00eda-Sell\u00e9s, D., Granado, P., Lopez-Blanco, M., and Mu\u00f1oz, J. (2012, January 4\u20137). A method for producing photorealistic digital outcrop models. Proceedings of the 74th EAGE Conference and Exhibition Incorporating EUROPEC, Copenhagen, Denmark. Abstract #D029.","DOI":"10.3997\/2214-4609.20148218"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2013.10.013","article-title":"Building a virtual outcrop, extracting geological information from it, and sharing the results in Google Earth via OpenPlot and Photoscan: An example from the Khaviz Anticline (Iran)","volume":"63","author":"Tavani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ostwald, A., and Hurtado, J. (2017, January 20\u201324). 3D models from structure-from-motion photogrammetry using Mars science laboratory images: Methods and implications. Proceedings of the 48th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA. LPI Contribution No. 1964, id.1787."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2016.11.042","article-title":"Revisiting the field geology of Taurus-Littrow","volume":"298","author":"Schmitt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Civet, F., Le Mou\u00e9lic, S., Le Menn, E., and Beaunay, S. (2016, January 16\u201321). Using Virtual Reality for Outreach Purposes in Planetology. Proceedings of the American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #48, Washington, DC, USA. id.419.10."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Le Mou\u00e9lic, S., L\u2019Haridon, J., Civet, F., Mangold, N., Triantafyllou, A., Mass\u00e9, M., Le Menn, E., and Beaunay, S. (2018, January 4\u201313). Using virtual reality to investigate geological outcrops on planetary surfaces. Proceedings of the 20th EGU General Assembly, EGU2018, Conference held, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2019.01.001","article-title":"3-D digital outcrop model for analysis of brittle deformation and lithological mapping (Lorette cave, Belgium)","volume":"120","author":"Triantafyllou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2019.104808","article-title":"3D digital outcrop model reconstruction of the Kimberley outcrop (Gale crater, Mars) and its integration into Virtual Reality for simulated geological analysis","volume":"182","author":"Caravaca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"012037","article-title":"Using game engine for 3D terrain visualisation of GIS data: A review","volume":"Volume 20","author":"Mat","year":"2014","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1130\/GSATG425A.1","article-title":"Visualization and Sharing of 3D Digital Outcrop Models to Promote Open Science","volume":"30","author":"Nesbit","year":"2020","journal-title":"GSA Today"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EA000408","article-title":"Coordinates and Maps of the Apollo 17 Landing Site","volume":"6","author":"Haase","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"225","article-title":"Geologic investigation of the Taurus-Littrow Valley: Apollo 17 landing site","volume":"1080","author":"Wolfe","year":"1981","journal-title":"U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03352788","article-title":"LISM Working Group. Global lunar-surface mapping experiment using the Lunar Imager\/Spectrometer on SELENE","volume":"60","author":"Haruyama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2015.07.039","article-title":"A new lunar digital elevation model from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and SELENE Terrain Camera","volume":"273","author":"Barker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(97)00365-7","article-title":"Mapping of the Moon by Clementine","volume":"19","author":"McEwen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20377","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JE001110","article-title":"Imaging of lunar surface maturity","volume":"105","author":"Lucey","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1117\/12.7971614","article-title":"The moon camera and its lenses","volume":"11","author":"Kammerer","year":"1972","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"225","article-title":"Apollo 17 lunar surface photography, in Geologic Investigation of the Taurus-Littrow Valley: Apollo 17 Landing Site","volume":"1080","author":"Batson","year":"1981","journal-title":"U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lawrence, S.J., Robinson, M.S., Broxton, M., Stopar, J.D., Close, W., Grunsfeld, J., Ingram, R., Jefferson, L., Locke, S., and Mitchell, R. (2008, January 22\u201323). The Apollo digital image archive: New research and data products. Proceedings of the NLSI Lunar Science Conference, California, CA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.lpi.usra.edu\/meetings\/nlsc2008\/pdf\/2066.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borgeson, W.T., and Batson, R.M. (1969). Photogrammetric Calibration of Apollo Film Cameras.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr6921"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2020, May 11). iWitnessPro. Available online: https:\/\/www.photometrix.com.au\/iwitness\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Manheim, M., Wagner, R., Klem, S., and Robinson, M. (2018, January 16\u201321). Photoscan DEMs from Apollo 15 Hasselblad photographs. Proceedings of the European Planetary Science Congress, Berlin, Germany. EPSC2018-996."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Agisoft LLC (2020, January 30). Metashape Professional. Available online: https:\/\/www.agisoft.com."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Meyer, C. (2010, January 1\u20135). Lunar Sample Compendium. Proceedings of the 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA. LPI Contribution No. 1533."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0012-8252(95)00033-X","article-title":"Pseudotachylite in impact structures\u2014generation by friction melting and shock brecciation?: A review and discussion","volume":"39","author":"Reimold","year":"1995","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Schmitt, H.H., Cernan, E., Lyndon, B., and Johnson Space Center (1973). Apollo 17: Preliminary Science Report, Scientific and Technical Information Office."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Papanastassiou, D.A., and Wasserburg, G.J. (1975, January 17\u201321). Rb-Sr study of a lunar dunite and evidence for early lunar differentiates. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ryder, G. Chemical variation and zoning of olivine in lunar dunite 72415: Near-surface accumulation. Proceedings of the 22nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, TX, USA, 18\u201322 March 1991."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Schmitt, H.H. (2016, January 21\u201325). Symplectites in dunite 71415 and troctolite 76535 indicate mantle overturn beneath lunar near-side. Proceedings of the 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA. LPI Contribution No. 1903."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Binet, R., Grizonnet, M., Torres, A., Malapert, J.-C., and Jocteur-Bronzier, F. (2019, January 18\u201322). Lunar Landing Site Localization, Trajectory Inversion, and DTM Update from CHANG\u2032E-3 Descent Images. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA. LPI Contribution No. 2132, id.2433."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/11\/1900\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:38:01Z","timestamp":1760175481000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/11\/1900"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12111900"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12111900","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]}}}