{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:58:18Z","timestamp":1760237898806,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]],"date-time":"2020-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41874090,41774091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874090,41774091"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The change in water storage driven by the Three Gorges Project directly affects the terrestrial water migration and redistribution in the Yangtze River Basin (YRB). As a result, a new water balance is established and regional evapotranspiration (ET) fluctuates in the process. In this paper, data from multiple-sources including from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite, land surface models (LSMs), remote sensing, and in-situ observations were used to monitor the temporal and spatial evolution of terrestrial water and estimate changes in ET in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) from 2002 to 2016. Our results showed that GRACE data scaled using the scale factor method significantly improved the signal amplitude and highlighted its spatial differences in the TGR area. Combining GRACE with surface hydrological observations, ET in the TGR area was estimated to have overall change characteristics highly consistent with results from the MOD16 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and the uncertainties of monthly ET are mainly from TWS changes derived by GRACE uncertainties such as measurement errors and leakage errors. During our study period, the cyclical ET was mainly driven by climate precipitation but short-term (monthly) ET in the TGR area was also directly affected by human-driven water storage. For example, rising water levels in the three water storage stages (2003, 2006, and 2008) caused an abnormal increase in regional ET (up to 22.4 cm\/month, 19.2 cm\/month and 29.5 cm\/month, respectively). Usually, high precipitation will cause increase in ET but the high precipitation during the water release periods (spring and summer) did not have a significant impact on the increased ET due to the water level in the TGR having decreased 30 m in this stage. Our results also indicate that the short-term fluctuations in flooded area and storage capacity of the TGR, i.e., the man-made mass changes in the main branch and tributaries of the Yangtze River, were the main factors that influenced the ET. This further illustrated that a quantitative estimation of changes in the ET in the TGR allows for a deeper understanding of the water balance in the regional land water cycle process as driven by both climate and human factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12132143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,6]],"date-time":"2020-07-06T09:49:11Z","timestamp":1594028951000},"page":"2143","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Using Satellite Gravity and Hydrological Data to Estimate Changes in Evapotranspiration Induced by Water Storage Fluctuations in the Three Gorges Reservoir of China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Yuhao","family":"Zheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3980-479X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linsong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5021-788X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Zhengyan","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Zhenran","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02433","DOI":"10.1029\/2006WR005779","article-title":"Analysis of terrestrial water storage changes from GRACE and GLDAS","volume":"44","author":"Syed","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-18-319-2014","article-title":"Evolving water science in the Anthropocene","volume":"18","author":"Savenije","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044012","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/4\/044012","article-title":"Downstream Yangtze River levels impacted by Three Gorges Dam","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-1985-2013","article-title":"Analysis of long-term terrestrial water storage variations in the Yangtze River basin","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EF001066","article-title":"A Global Assessment of Terrestrial Evapotranspiration Increase Due to Surface Water Area Change","volume":"7","author":"Zhan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earths Future"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3707","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-3707-2013","article-title":"Benchmark products for land evapotran-spiration: LandFlux-EVAL multi-data set synthesis","volume":"17","author":"Mueller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2016.03.033","article-title":"Study on the Evaporation and Evapotranspiration Measured on the C\u0103ld\u0103ru\u015fani Lake (Romania)","volume":"32","author":"Stan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010534","article-title":"Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) detection of water storage changes in the Three Gorges Reservoir of China and comparison with in situ measurements","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.07.003","article-title":"Deriving scaling factors using a global hydrological model to restore GRACE total water storage changes for China\u2019s Yangtze River Basin","volume":"168","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8494","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR016923","article-title":"Estimation of human-induced changes in terrestrial water storage through integration of GRACE satellite detection and hydrological modeling: A case study of the Y angtze R iver basin","volume":"51","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2007.02.018","article-title":"Spatially distributing monthly reference evapotranspiration and pan evaporation considering topographic influences","volume":"338","author":"McVicar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-453-2011","article-title":"Global land-surface evaporation estimated from satellite-based observations","volume":"15","author":"Miralles","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4815","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-013-0440-y","article-title":"A Comparison Between Conventional and M5 Model Tree Methods for Converting Pan Evaporation to Reference Evapotranspiration for Semi-Arid Region","volume":"27","author":"Rahimikhoob","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5688","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1346400","article-title":"Multi-scale validation of GLEAM evapotranspiration products over China via ChinaFLUX ET measurements","volume":"38","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3228","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD026065","article-title":"Comparison of evapotranspiration estimates based on the surface water balance, modified Penman-Monteith model, and reanalysis data sets for continental China","volume":"122","author":"Mao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, K., Kimball, J.S., Nemani, R., and Running, S.W. (2010). A continuous satellite-derived global record of land surface evapotranspiration from 1983 to 2006. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008800"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10401","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL029472","article-title":"Influence of the Three Gorges Dam on downstream delivery of sediment and its environmental implications, Yangtze River","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.12.003","article-title":"Impacts of large dams on downstream fluvial sedimentation: An example of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) on the Changjiang (Yangtze River)","volume":"480","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3981","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9541","article-title":"Effects of the Three Gorges Reservoir on the hydrological droughts at the downstream Yichang station during 2003\u20132011","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Kaban, M.K., Thomas, M., Chen, C., and Ma, X. (2019). The Challenge of Spatial Resolutions for GRACE-Based Estimates Volume Changes of Larger Man-Made Lake: The Case of China\u2019s Three Gorges Reservoir in the Yangtze River. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010099"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JHM951.1","article-title":"Assimilation of GRACE Terrestrial Water Storage Data into a Land Surface Model: Results for the Mississippi River Basin","volume":"9","author":"Zaitchik","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7622","DOI":"10.1029\/2018WR024670","article-title":"On the Use of Adaptive Ensemble Kalman Filtering to Mitigate Error Misspecifications in GRACE Data Assimilation","volume":"55","author":"Shokri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL020873","article-title":"Basin scale estimates of evapotranspiration using GRACE and other observations","volume":"31","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014581","article-title":"Uncertainty in evapotranspiration from land surface modeling, remote sensing, and GRACE satellites","volume":"50","author":"Long","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Luo, Z., Zhong, B., and Zhou, H. (2018). An Improved Approach for Evapotranspiration Estimation Using Water Balance Equation: Case Study of Yangtze River Basin. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10060812"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-11-1227-2007","article-title":"The bias in GRACE estimates of continental water storage variations","volume":"11","author":"Klees","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Longuevergne, L., Scanlon, B.R., and Wilson, C. (2010). GRACE Hydrological estimates for small basins: Evaluating processing approaches on the High Plains Aquifer, USA. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008564"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04531","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011453","article-title":"Accuracy of scaled GRACE terrestrial water storage estimates","volume":"48","author":"Landerer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9824","DOI":"10.1002\/2017WR021150","article-title":"A Data-Driven Approach for Repairing the Hydrological Catchment Signal Damage Due to Filtering of GRACE Products","volume":"53","author":"Vishwakarma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"225","article-title":"Using GRACE spatial gravity measurements to monitor seasonal changes in water reserves in the Yangtze River Basin","volume":"36","author":"Hu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1770.2011.00481.x","article-title":"Nine years of water resources monitoring over the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, with ENVISAT, MODIS, Beijing-1 time series, Altimetric data and field measurements","volume":"16","author":"Lai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lakes Reserv. Res. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"49","article-title":"Terrestrial water storage change in the Yangtze and Yellow river basins from GRACE time-variable gravity measurement","volume":"34","author":"Ni","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2015.01.002","article-title":"Terrestrial water storage anomalies of Yangtze River Basin droughts observed by GRACE and connections with ENSO","volume":"126","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.02.027","article-title":"Water budget closure based on GRACE measurements and reconstructed evapotranspiration using GLDAS and water use data for two large densely-populated mid-latitude basins","volume":"547","author":"Lv","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL016457","article-title":"Time-variable gravity signal during the water impoundment of China\u2019s Three-Gorges Reservoir","volume":"29","author":"Boy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1002\/cjg2.1078","article-title":"Water Storage Changes in Three Gorges Water Systems Area Inferred from Grace Time-Variable Gravity Data","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-008-0556-2","article-title":"Trend of China land water storage redistribution at medi- and large-spatial scales in recent five years by satellite gravity observations","volume":"54","author":"Zhong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, M., Ries, J.C., and Tapley, B.D. (2011). Variations of the Earth\u2019s figure axis from satellite laser ranging and GRACE. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JB000850"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrb.50058","article-title":"Deceleration in the Earth\u2019s oblateness","volume":"118","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Sol. Earth"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swenson, S., Chambers, D.P., and Wahr, J. (2008). Estimating geocenter variations from a combination of GRACE and ocean model output. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JB005338"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"557","article-title":"Computations of the viscoelastic response of a 3-D compressible Earth to surface loading: An application to Glacial Isostatic Adjustment in Antarctica and Canada","volume":"192","author":"AG","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Wilson, C.R., Tapley, B.D., Blankenship, D.D., and Ivins, E.R. (2007). Patagonia Icefield melting observed by Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). Geophys. Res. Lett., 34.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL031871"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30205","DOI":"10.1029\/98JB02844","article-title":"Time variability of the Earth\u2019s gravity field: Hydrological and oceanic effects and their possible detection using GRACE","volume":"103","author":"Wahr","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Sol. Earth"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swenson, S., and Wahr, J. (2002). Methods for inferring regional surface-mass anomalies from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) measurements of time-variable gravity. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 107.","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JB000576"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1123785","article-title":"Measurements of Time-Variable Gravity Show Mass Loss in Antarctica","volume":"311","author":"Velicogna","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-85-3-381","article-title":"The Global Land Data Assimilation System","volume":"85","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(02)00283-4","article-title":"A global hydrological model for deriving water availability indicators: Model tuning and validation","volume":"270","author":"Kaspar","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Oleson, K.W., Lawrence, D.M., Bonan, G.B., and Feddema, J. (2013). Technical Description of Version 4.5 of the Community Land Model (CLM) NCAR Technical Note NCAR\/TNG 503+STR."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2539","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1997)078<2539:GPAYMA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Precipitation: A 17-Year Monthly Analysis Based on Gauge Observations, Satellite Estimates, and Numerical Model Outputs","volume":"78","author":"Xie","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-013-0860-x","article-title":"GPCC\u2019s new land surface precipitation climatology based on quality-controlled in situ data and its role in quantifying the global water cycle","volume":"115","author":"Schneider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Theor. App. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3128494","article-title":"Principles of Environmental Physics","volume":"27","author":"Monteith","year":"1974","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(70)90255-6","article-title":"River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I\u2014A discussion of principles","volume":"10","author":"Nash","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., and Dickinson, R.E. (2012). A review of global terrestrial evapotranspiration: Observation, modeling, climatology, and climatic variability. Rev. Geophys., 50.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011RG000373"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071287","article-title":"Detection of human-induced evapotranspiration using GRACE satellite observations in the Haihe River basin of China","volume":"44","author":"Pan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-016-9360-8","article-title":"Assessing and Improving Land Surface Model Outputs Over Africa Using GRACE, Field, and Remote Sensing Data","volume":"37","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, Y., Zhong, M., Mao, Y., and Ji, B. (2020). Zhong Evaluation of Evapotranspiration for Exorheic Catchments of China during the GRACE Era: From a Water Balance Perspective. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030511"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/13\/2143\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:47:13Z","timestamp":1760176033000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/13\/2143"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12132143"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12132143","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]]}}}