{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T18:30:57Z","timestamp":1774031457564,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,18]],"date-time":"2020-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1595030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41501116, 51761135022, and 41401413"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41501116, 51761135022, and 41401413"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High-lying vegetated marshes and low-lying bare mudflats have been suggested to be two stable states in intertidal ecosystems. Being able to identify the conditions enabling the shifts between these two stable states is of great importance for ecosystem management in general and the restoration of tidal marsh ecosystems in particular. However, the number of studies investigating the conditions for state shifts from bare mudflats to vegetated marshes remains relatively low. We developed a GIS approach to identify the locations of expected shifts from bare intertidal flats to vegetated marshes along a large estuary (Western Scheldt estuary, SW Netherlands), by analyzing the interactions between spatial patterns of vegetation biomass, elevation, tidal currents, and wind waves. We analyzed false-color aerial images for locating marshes, LIDAR-based digital elevation models, and spatial model simulations of tidal currents and wind waves at the whole estuary scale (~326 km\u00b2). Our results demonstrate that: (1) Bimodality in vegetation biomass and intertidal elevation co-occur; (2) the tidal currents and wind waves change abruptly at the transitions between the low-elevation bare state and high-elevation vegetated state. These findings suggest that biogeomorphic feedback between vegetation growth, currents, waves, and sediment dynamics causes the state shifts from bare mudflats to vegetated marshes. Our findings are translated into a GIS approach (logistic regression) to identify the locations of shifts from bare to vegetated states during the studied period based on spatial patterns of elevation, current, and wave orbital velocities. This GIS approach can provide a scientific basis for the management and restoration of tidal marshes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12142316","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,20]],"date-time":"2020-07-20T10:59:38Z","timestamp":1595242778000},"page":"2316","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Identifying Hydro-Geomorphological Conditions for State Shifts from Bare Tidal Flats to Vegetated Tidal Marshes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3914-0767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chen","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite Application Center for Ecology and Environment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment\/State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Satellite Remote Sensing, Fengde East Road 4, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Ecosystem Management Research Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4253-4081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sven","family":"Smolders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecosystem Management Research Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium"},{"name":"Flanders Hydraulics Research, Department of Mobility and Public Works, Flemish Government, Berchemlei 115, 2140 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1405-7510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David P.","family":"Callaghan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2099-1545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jim","family":"van Belzen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecosystem Management Research Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Estuarine and Delta Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research and Utrecht University, 4400AC Yerseke, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tjeerd J.","family":"Bouma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Estuarine and Delta Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research and Utrecht University, 4400AC Yerseke, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhan","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, and School of Marine Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingke","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jia 20 DaTun Road, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stijn","family":"Temmerman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecosystem Management Research Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/269471a0","article-title":"Thresholds and breakpoints in ecosystems with a multiplicity of stable states","volume":"269","author":"May","year":"1977","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/35098000","article-title":"Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems","volume":"413","author":"Scheffer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08227","article-title":"Early-warning signals for critical transitions","volume":"461","author":"Scheffer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1038\/467411a","article-title":"Complex systems: Foreseeing tipping points","volume":"467","author":"Scheffer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2003.09.002","article-title":"Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: Linking theory to observation","volume":"18","author":"Scheffer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1721206115","article-title":"Predicting tipping points in complex environmental systems","volume":"115","author":"Moore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"F01008","article-title":"Landscape evolution in tidal embayments: Modeling the interplay of erosion, sedimentation, and vegetation dynamics","volume":"112","author":"Lanzoni","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1130\/G23502A.1","article-title":"Vegetation causes channel erosion in a tidal landscape","volume":"35","author":"Temmerman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2261","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10374","article-title":"Short-term mudflat dynamics drive long-term cyclic salt marsh dynamics","volume":"61","author":"Bouma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15811","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms15811","article-title":"Vegetation recovery in tidal marshes reveals critical slowing down under increased inundation","volume":"8","author":"Kirwan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1890\/10-1510.1","article-title":"The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services","volume":"81","author":"Barbier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10104","article-title":"Observations of tidal and storm surge attenuation in a large tidal marsh","volume":"60","author":"Stark","year":"2015","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.11.001","article-title":"Dynamic interactions between coastal storms and salt marshes: A review","volume":"301","author":"Leonardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-018-0394-7","article-title":"Contribution of mangroves and salt marshes to nature-based mitigation of coastal flood risks in major deltas of the world","volume":"41","author":"Schwarz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Estuar. Coasts"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2016.06.001","article-title":"Nature-based flood protection: The efficiency of vegetated foreshores for reducing wave loads on coastal dikes","volume":"116","author":"Vuik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2251","article-title":"Wave attenuation over coastal salt marshes under storm surge conditions","volume":"7","author":"Kudella","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11149","article-title":"How effective are tidal marshes as nature-based shoreline protection throughout seasons?","volume":"64","author":"Schoutens","year":"2019","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2909","article-title":"Overestimation of marsh vulnerability to sea level rise","volume":"6","author":"Kirwan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0476-5","article-title":"Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise","volume":"561","author":"Schuerch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8337","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0508379103","article-title":"Critical bifurcation of shallow microtidal landforms in tidal flats and salt marshes","volume":"103","author":"Fagherazzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JF002474","article-title":"Does biogeomorphic feedback lead to abrupt shifts between alternative landscape states?: An empirical study on intertidal flats and marshes","volume":"118","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-008-9184-6","article-title":"Potential for sudden shifts in transient systems: Distinguishing between local and landscape-scale processes","volume":"11","author":"Herman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"F04002","article-title":"Morphological evolution of the Venice lagoon: Evidence from the past and trend for the future","volume":"114","author":"Carniello","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"F03001","article-title":"Self-organization of shallow basins in tidal flats and salt marshes","volume":"112","author":"Defina","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"F02024","article-title":"Wind waves in shallow microtidal basins and the dynamic equilibrium of tidal flats","volume":"112","author":"Fagherazzi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0700958104","article-title":"A coupled geomorphic and ecological model of tidal marsh evolution","volume":"104","author":"Kirwan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L11402","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL030178","article-title":"Biologically-controlled multiple equilibria of tidal landforms and the fate of the Venice lagoon","volume":"34","author":"Marani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophys Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"F04004","article-title":"The importance of being coupled: Stable states and catastropic shifts in tidal biomorphodynamics","volume":"115","author":"Marani","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2745.12241","article-title":"Critical transitions in disturbance-driven ecosystems: Identifying windows of opportunity for recovery","volume":"102","author":"Balke","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JG002870","article-title":"Windows of opportunity for salt marsh vegetation establishment on bare tidal flats: The importance of temporal and spatial variability in hydrodynamic forcing","volume":"120","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3775","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR018318","article-title":"A global analysis of the seaward salt marsh extent: The importance of tidal range","volume":"52","author":"Balke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JF004742","article-title":"Quantifying bed level change at the transition of tidal flat and salt marsh: Can we understand the lateral location of the marsh edge?","volume":"123","author":"Willemsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.2011.00198.x","article-title":"Are all intertidal wetlands naturally created equal? Bottlenecks, thresholds and knowledge gaps to mangrove and saltmarsh ecosystems","volume":"87","author":"Friess","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2012.04.020","article-title":"Understanding system disturbance and ecosystem services in restored saltmarshes: Integrating physical and biogeochemical processes","volume":"106","author":"Spencer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-005-0896-8","article-title":"The Scheldt estuary: A description of a changing ecosystem","volume":"540","author":"Meire","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Reitsma, J.M. (2006). Toelichting bij de Vegetatiekartering Westerschelde 2004 op Basis Vanfalse Colour-Luchtfoto\u2019s 1:5000\/1:10000, Ministerie van verkeer en Waterstaat, Rijksinstituut, Adviesdienst Geo-Informatie & ICT."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Rijkswaterstaat (2011). Kwaliteitsdocument Laseraltimetrie Projectgebied Westerschelde 2011, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat Rijkswaterstaat."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007938526886","article-title":"Analysis of fine-scale spatial pattern of a grassland from remotely-sensed imagery and field collected data","volume":"13","author":"Lobo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)00111-Y","article-title":"Leaf area index estimation from visible and near-infrared reflectance data","volume":"52","author":"Price","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Tolman, M.E., and Pranger, D.P. (2012). Toelichting bij de Vegetatiekartering Westerschelde 2010 op Basis Van False Colour-Luchtfoto\u2019s 1:5000, Ministerie van verkeer en Waterstaat, Rijksinstituut, Adviesdienst Geo-Informatie & ICT."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Alkemade, I.S.W. (2004). Kwaliteitsdocument Laseraltimetrie, Projectgebied Westerschelde, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Rijkswaterstaat."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hervouet, J.-M. (2007). Hydrodynamics of Free Surface Flows: Modelling with the Finite Element Method, Wiley Online Library.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470319628"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Smolders, S., Ides, S., Plancke, Y., Meire, P., and Temmerman, S. (2012, January 14\u201318). Calibrating discharges in a 2D hydrodynamic model of the Scheldt Estuary: Which parameters can be used and what is their sensitivity?. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Hydroinformatics, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"3181","article-title":"Role of intertidal wetlands for tidal and storm tide attenuation along a confined estuary: A model study","volume":"3","author":"Smolders","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7649","DOI":"10.1029\/98JC02622","article-title":"A third-generation wave model for coastal regions 1. model description and validation","volume":"104","author":"Booij","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7667","DOI":"10.1029\/1998JC900123","article-title":"A third-generation wave model for coastal regions 2. verification","volume":"104","author":"Ris","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holthuijsen, L.H. (2007). Waves in Oceanic and Coastal Waters, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511618536"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2010.05.013","article-title":"Hydrodynamic forcing on salt-marsh development: Distinguishing the relative importance of waves and tidal flows","volume":"89","author":"Callaghan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3839(03)00065-6","article-title":"Phase-decoupled refraction-diffraction for spectral wave models","volume":"49","author":"Holthuijsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"2348","article-title":"Effects of sediment disturbance regimes on Spartina seedling establishment: Implications for salt marsh creation and restoration","volume":"62","author":"Cao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2015.12.012","article-title":"Quantifying critical conditions for seaward expansion of tidal marshes: A transplantation experiment","volume":"169","author":"Silinski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2007.0030-1299.16245.x","article-title":"Does scale-dependent feedback explain spatial complexity in salt-marsh ecosystems?","volume":"117","author":"Herman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09364","article-title":"Windows of opportunity: Thresholds to mangrove seedling establishment on tidal flats","volume":"440","author":"Balke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2745.2011.01870.x","article-title":"Colonization of a newly developing salt marsh: Disentangling independent effects of elevation and redox potential on halophytes","volume":"99","author":"Davy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2013.66","article-title":"Nonlinear dynamics and alternative stable states in shallow coastal systems","volume":"26","author":"McGlathery","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"F02009","article-title":"Influence of tidal range on the stability of coastal marshland","volume":"115","author":"Kirwan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2010.04.027","article-title":"The mutual influence of biotic and abiotic components on the long-term ecomorphodynamic evolution of salt-marsh ecosystems","volume":"126","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(2000)081[1179:FOCBPC]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Facilitation of cobble beach plant communities through habitat modification by Spartina alterniflora","volume":"81","author":"Bruno","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3449","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(2001)082[3449:DASSOI]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Do alternate stable states occur in natural ecosystems? Evidence from a tidal flat","volume":"82","author":"Herman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F03029","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JF001566","article-title":"How does vegetation affect sedimentation on tidal marshes? Investigating particle capture and hydrodynamic controls on biologically mediated sedimentation","volume":"115","author":"Mudd","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"F01008","article-title":"Flow interaction with dynamic vegetation patches: Implications for bio-geomorphic evolution of a tidal landscape","volume":"116","author":"Vandenbruwaene","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1306\/212F7CDE-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D","article-title":"Long-term accretion rates on tidal salt marshes","volume":"51","author":"Pethick","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Petrol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-3227(02)00642-4","article-title":"Modelling long-term tidal marsh growth under changing tidal conditions and suspended sediment concentrations, Scheldt estuary, Belgium","volume":"193","author":"Temmerman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3091.2006.00772.x","article-title":"The influence of vegetation on turbulence and flow velocities in European salt-marshes","volume":"53","author":"Neumeier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sedimentology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-011-9424-4","article-title":"Wave attenuation at a salt marsh margin: A case study of an exposed coast on the Yangtze Estuary","volume":"35","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Estuaries Coasts"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2005.12.019","article-title":"Spatial flow and sedimentation patterns within patches of epibenthic structures: Combining field, flume and modelling experiments","volume":"27","author":"Bouma","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1002\/eco.279","article-title":"Biogeomorphology of tidal landforms: Physical and biological processes shaping the tidal landscape","volume":"5","author":"Marani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecohydrology"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Burd, F., Clifton, J., and Murphy, B. (1994). Sites of Historical Sea Defence Failure. Phase II study."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1082","article-title":"Application of lidar digital terrain modelling to predict intertidal habitat development at a managed retreat site: Abbotts Hall, Essex, UK","volume":"29","author":"Blott","year":"2004","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.3354\/meps08130","article-title":"Effects of shoot stiffness, shoot size and current velocity on scouring sediment from around seedlings and propagules","volume":"388","author":"Bouma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s10457-008-9165-y","article-title":"Are drought and wildfires turning Mediterranean cork oak forests into persistent shrublands?","volume":"76","author":"Acacio","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agrofor. Syst."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1210657","article-title":"Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions","volume":"334","author":"Hirota","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2781","DOI":"10.1890\/10-2182.1","article-title":"Indicators of ecosystem function identify alternate states in the Sagebrush steppe","volume":"21","author":"Kachergis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, M., Wang, Z., Wang, C., Mao, D., and Zhang, Y. (2019). A new vegetation index to detect periodically submerged Mangrove forest using single-tide sentinel-2 imagery. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11172043"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"535","article-title":"Monitoring loss and recovery of mangrove forests during 42 years: The achievements of mangrove conservation in China","volume":"73","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3841","article-title":"Geomorphic knowledge for mangrove restoration: A pan-tropical categorization","volume":"41","author":"Balke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/14\/2316\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:49:44Z","timestamp":1760176184000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/14\/2316"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,18]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12142316"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12142316","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,18]]}}}