{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:06:24Z","timestamp":1760238384266,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,30]],"date-time":"2020-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596067200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While most land use and land cover (LULC) studies have focused on modeling, change detection and driving forces at the class or categorical level, few have focused on the subclass level, especially regarding the quality change within a class such as farmland. The concept of nondominant farmland area (NAF) is proposed in this study to assess within class variability and quantify farmland areas where poor environmental conditions, unsuitable natural factors, natural disasters or unsustainable management practices lead to poor crop growth and thus low yield. A 17-year (2000\u20132016) time series of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to develop a NAF extraction model with abnormal features in the NDVI curves and subsequently applied to Heilongjiang province in China. The NAF model was analyzed and assessed from three aspects: agricultural disasters, soil types and medium- and low-yield fields, to determine dominant factors of the NAF patterns. The results suggested that: (1) the NAF model was able to extract a variety of NAF types with an overall accuracy of ~80%. The NAF area accumulated more than 8 years in 17 years is 6.20 thousand km2 in Heilongjiang Province, accounting for 3.75% of the total cultivated land area; (2) the NAF had significant spatial clustering characteristics and temporal variability. 53.24% of the NAF accumulated more than 8 years in 17 years is mainly concentrated in the west of Heilongjiang Province. The inter-annual NAF variability was related with meteorological variations, topography and soil properties; and (3) the spatial and temporal NAF patterns seem to reflect a cumulative impact of meteorological disasters, poor farmland quality, and soil degradation on crop growth. The determinant factors of the observed NAF patterns differed across regions, and must be interpreted in the local context of topography, soil properties and meteorological environment. Spatial and temporal NAF variability could provide useful, diagnostic information for precision farmland management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12152441","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,30]],"date-time":"2020-07-30T12:15:38Z","timestamp":1596111338000},"page":"2441","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Detecting and Assessing Nondominant Farmland Area with Long-Term MODIS Time Series Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Shengnan","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"},{"name":"Asia Hub, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaokang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Institute for Earth System Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinle","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huanjun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"},{"name":"Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8183-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiaguo","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Asia Hub, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yankun","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"85","article-title":"Dawning of Progressive Web Applications (PWA): Edging Out the Pitfalls of Traditional Mobile Development","volume":"68","author":"Adetunjia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Sci. Res. J. Eng. Technol. Sci. (ASRJETS)"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-016-1267-2","article-title":"Potential promoted productivity and spatial patterns of medium- and low-yield cropland land in China","volume":"26","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2013.08.005","article-title":"Spatially-explicit sensitivity analysis for land suitability evaluation","volume":"45","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"226","article-title":"Comprehensive evaluation of cultivated land quality and sensitivity analysis of index weight in hilly region of pearl river delta","volume":"33","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16467","article-title":"Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop production","volume":"529","author":"Lesk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wanda, D.K., Stef, L., Michael, H., Laurent, T., Pol, C., and Ben, S. (2017). Assessment of Regional Vegetation Response to Climate Anomalies: A Case Study for Australia Using GIMMS NDVI Time Series between 1982 and 2006. Remote Sens., 9.","key":"ref_6","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010034"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, R., Wu, Y., Hai, C., Li, X., and Zhou, D. (2013). Comprehensive Evaluation of Cultivated Land Quality Based on GIS in Tumote Right Banner of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; Geo-Informatics in Resource Management and Sustainable Ecosystem, Springer.","key":"ref_7","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-41908-9_51"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"100","article-title":"GIS-based risk evaluation of karst land degradation disaster: A case of Du\u2019an Yao Autonomous County","volume":"15","author":"Hu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Nat. Disasters"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u017d\u00ed\u017eala, D., Z\u00e1dorov\u00e1, T., and Jiri, K. (2017). Assessment of Soil Degradation by Erosion Based on Analysis of Soil Properties Using Aerial Hyperspectral Images and Ancillary Data, Czech Republic. Remote Sens., 9.","key":"ref_9","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010028"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(13)60235-X","article-title":"Cold Damage Risk Assessment of Double Cropping Rice in Hunan, China","volume":"12","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-014-0723-8","article-title":"Relationships between drought disasters and crop production during ENSO episodes across the North China Plain","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gexplo.2013.07.014","article-title":"Geochemical evaluation of land quality in China and its applications","volume":"139","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"207","article-title":"Remotely sensed data capacities to assess soil degradation","volume":"19","author":"Rayegani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2017.04.014","article-title":"Practical assessment of soil degradation on smallholder farmers\u2019 fields in Zimbabwe: Integrating local knowledge and scientific diagnostic indicators","volume":"156","author":"Nezomba","year":"2017","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eja.2009.06.003","article-title":"Adaptation to climate change and climate variability in European agriculture: The importance of farm level responses","volume":"32","author":"Reidsma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Agron."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1753","article-title":"Herdsmen\u2019s perceptions and adaptation of climate change in typical areas of Inner Mongolia","volume":"30","author":"Hou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"91","article-title":"Agricultural Drought Adaptation Model of Farming-Pastoral Zone and Regional Sustainable Development\u2014\u2014A Case Study of Xinghe County in Inner Mongolia","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Catastrophology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.06.021","article-title":"Are recent frequent high floods in Mahanadi basin in eastern India due to increase in extreme rainfalls","volume":"517","author":"Jena","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.711","article-title":"Spatial evaluation of soil erosion risk in the West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania","volume":"17","author":"Vrieling","year":"2006","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"127","article-title":"Remote sensing inversion of soil degradation in typical vulnerable ecological region of Yellow River Delta","volume":"31","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7061(03)00097-1","article-title":"Quantification of compaction effects on soil physical properties and crop growth","volume":"116","author":"Lipiec","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-5829-5","article-title":"Meteorological drought in Bangladesh: Assessing, analysing and hazard mapping using SPI, GIS and monthly rainfall data","volume":"75","author":"Rahman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Meteorological hazard assessment based on trends and abrupt changes in rainfall characteristics on the Korean peninsula","volume":"127","author":"Sung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"235","article-title":"Assessment of RapidEye vegetation indices for estimation of leaf area index and biomass in corn and soybean crops","volume":"34","author":"Kross","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2017.12.030","article-title":"The coupled impact of plastic film mulching and deficit irrigation on soil water\/heat transfer and water use efficiency of spring wheat in Northwest China","volume":"201","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1017\/wet.2019.7","article-title":"Strawberry, black medic (Medicago lupulina), and Carolina geranium (Geranium carolinianum) growth under light-limiting conditions","volume":"33","author":"Sharpe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.01.023","article-title":"Allocate soil individuals to soil classes with topsoil spectral characteristics and decision trees","volume":"320","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"278","article-title":"Integrating Crop Phenophase Information in Large-area Crop Condition Evaluation with Remote Sensing","volume":"29","author":"Meng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Technol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2006.01164.x","article-title":"Phenology of a northern hardwood forest canopy","volume":"12","author":"Richardson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2011.03.003","article-title":"Assessing the effects of climate change on the phenology of European temperate trees","volume":"151","author":"Vitasse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2011.02562.x","article-title":"Terrestrial biosphere models need better representation of vegetation phenology: Results from the North American Carbon Program Site Synthesis","volume":"18","author":"Richardson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.11.004","article-title":"Toward mapping crop progress at field scales through fusion of Landsat and MODIS imagery","volume":"188","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"43","article-title":"Remote sensing extraction of crop planting structure oriented to agricultural regionalization","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Agric. Resour. Reg. Plan."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2012.03.012","article-title":"An evaluation of MODIS 8-and 16-day composite products for monitoring maize green leaf area index","volume":"161","author":"Gitelson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"301","article-title":"Relationship between Winter Wheat Growth Grades Obtained from Remote-sensing and Meteorological Factor","volume":"45","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Mach."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-014-1087-1","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability in the net primary production of alpine grassland on the Tibetan Plateau since 1982","volume":"24","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.11.021","article-title":"Analysis of time-series MODIS 250 m vegetation index data for crop classification in the U.S. Central Great Plains","volume":"108","author":"Wardlow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, T., Yang, Z., Inoue, Y., Zhu, Y., and Cao, W. (2016). Preface: Recent Advances in Remote Sensing for Crop Growth Monitoring. Remote Sens., 8.","key":"ref_38","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020116"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2014.03.045","article-title":"Cover crop effect on corn growth and yield as influenced by topography","volume":"189","author":"Steibel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2007.09.005","article-title":"Effects of aeolian deposition on soil properties and crop growth in sandy soils of northern China","volume":"142","author":"Zhao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"224","article-title":"Research progress on the response and adaptation of crop phenology to climate change in China","volume":"38","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1397","article-title":"The Spatio-temporal Pattern Change and Optimum Layout of Grain Production in the West of Northeast China","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Geogr. Sin."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/15\/2441\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:52:50Z","timestamp":1760176370000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/15\/2441"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,30]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12152441"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12152441","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,30]]}}}