{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T17:18:43Z","timestamp":1783358323518,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]],"date-time":"2020-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1597795200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41571359"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41571359"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to improve the simulation accuracy of directional brightness temperature (DBT) and the retrieval accuracy of component temperature, a model considering intra-row heterogeneity to simulate the DBT angular distribution over crop canopy is proposed. At individual scale, the probability of leaf appearance is inversely proportional to the distance from central stem. On the basis of this assumption, we formulated leaf area volume density (LAVD) spatial distribution at three hierarchical scales: individual scale, row scale, and scene scale. The equations for directional gap probability and bi-directional gap probability were modified to adapt the heterogeneity of row structure. Afterwards, a straightforward radiative transfer model was built based on the gap probabilities. A set of simulated data was generated by the thermal radiosity-graphics combined model (TRGM) as the benchmark to evaluate both forward simulation and inversion ability of the new model; we compared the new DBT model against an existing model assuming row as homogeneous box. With the growth of crops, the canopy structure of row crops will gradually change from row structure to continuous canopy. The new DBT model agreed with the TRGM model much better than the homogeneous row model at the middle stage of the crop growth season. The new model and the homogeneous row model achieve similar accuracy at early stage and end stage. At the middle growth stage, the new model can improve the accuracy of soil temperature retrieval. We recommend the new DBT model as an option to improve the DBT simulation and component temperature retrieval for row-planted crop canopy. In particular, the more accurate component temperatures during the middle growth stage are fundamentally important in characterizing crop water status, evapotranspiration, and soil moisture, which are subsequently critical for predicting crop productivity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172667","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]],"date-time":"2020-08-19T09:22:31Z","timestamp":1597828951000},"page":"2667","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Modeling Directional Brightness Temperature (DBT) over Crop Canopy with Effects of Intra-Row Heterogeneity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7823-3566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongming","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Biao","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2433-9901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zunjian","family":"Bian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boxiong","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3713-9511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qinhuo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2166-5314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yijian","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongbo","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.834196","article-title":"Modeling directional brightness temperature over a maize canopy in row structure","volume":"42","author":"Yu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geosci. Remote Sens. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lambers, H., and Ribas-Carbo, M. (2005). Response of plant respiration to changes in temperature: Mechanisms and consequences of variations in q10 values and Acclimation. Plant Respiration: From Cell to Ecosystem, Springer."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08930","article-title":"Temperature-associated increases in the global soil respiration record","volume":"464","author":"Bondlamberty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2015.03.001","article-title":"Remote sensing model to estimate ecosystem respiration in Northern China and the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"304","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1126\/science.205.4406.585","article-title":"Remote detection of biological stresses in plants with infrared thermometry","volume":"205","author":"Pinter","year":"1979","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliva, R.N., Steiner, J.J., and Young, W.C. (1994). Red clover seed production: I. Crop water requirements and irrigation timing. Crop Sci., 34.","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci1994.0011183X003400010032x"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(81)90032-7","article-title":"Normalizing the stress-degree-day parameter for environmental variability","volume":"24","author":"Idso","year":"1981","journal-title":"Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1029\/WR017i004p01133","article-title":"Canopy temperature as a crop water stress indicator","volume":"17","author":"Jackson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90020-5","article-title":"Estimating crop water deficit using the relation between surface-air temperature and spectral vegetation index","volume":"49","author":"Moran","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(85)90111-7","article-title":"Spectral response of a plant canopy with different soil backgrounds","volume":"17","author":"Huete","year":"1985","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02265-Y","article-title":"Source approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes in observations of directional radiometric surface temperature","volume":"77","author":"Norman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3801","DOI":"10.3390\/s90503801","article-title":"A review of current methodologies for regional evapotranspiration estimation from remotely sensed data","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Li, R., Yang, Y., Cao, B., Bian, Z., Hu, T., Du, Y., Sun, L., and Liu, Q. (2020). Temperature-based and Radiance-based Validation of the Collection 6 MYD11 and MYD21 Land Surface Temperature Products Over Barren Surfaces in Northwestern China. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 1\u201314. in press.","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.2998945"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2299","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169108955259","article-title":"Angular variation of land surface spectral emissivity in the thermal infrared: Laboratory investigations on bare soils","volume":"12","author":"Labed","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"66","article-title":"Separating vegetation and soil temperature using airborne multiangular remote sensing image data","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2282492","article-title":"Directional anisotropy of brightness surface temperature over vineyards: Case study over the medoc region (SW France)","volume":"11","author":"Lagouarde","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00154.1","article-title":"Heihe watershed allied telemetry experimental research (HiWATER): Scientific objectives and experimental design","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.02.008","article-title":"Angular effect of MODIS emissivity products and its application to the split-window algorithm","volume":"66","author":"Ren","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.01.021","article-title":"Angular variations of brightness surface temperatures derived from dual-view measurements of the Advanced Along-Track Scanning Radiometer using a new single band atmospheric correction method","volume":"223","author":"Coll","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4739","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000101576","article-title":"A practical algorithm to infer soil and foliage component temperatures from bi-angular ATSR-2 data","volume":"24","author":"Jia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00293-0","article-title":"The potential of directional radiometric temperatures for monitoring soil and leaf temperature and soil moisture status","volume":"80","author":"Francois","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-1249-2009","article-title":"Retrieval of canopy component temperatures through Bayesian inversion of directional thermal measurements","volume":"13","author":"Timmermans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4660","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2547961","article-title":"Retrieval of leaf, sunlit soil, and shaded soil component temperatures using airborne thermal infrared multiangle observations","volume":"54","author":"Bian","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.12.004","article-title":"A semi-empirical approach for modeling the vegetation thermal infrared directional anisotropy of canopies based on using vegetation indices","volume":"160","author":"Bian","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogram. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.895844","article-title":"Unified optical-thermal four-stream radiative transfer theory for homogeneous vegetation canopies","volume":"45","author":"Verhoef","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geosci. Remote Sens. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3775","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.18.003775","article-title":"Plant canopy information extraction from composite scene reflectance of row crops","volume":"18","author":"Jackson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168308948548","article-title":"Directional radiometric measurements of row-crop temperatures","volume":"4","author":"Kimes","year":"1983","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1360\/02yd9106","article-title":"A bi-directional gap model for simulating the directional thermal radiance of row crops","volume":"45","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02883250","article-title":"Thermal bidirectional gap probability model for row crop canopies and validation","volume":"46","author":"Yan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3721","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.903401","article-title":"Modeling directional brightness temperature of the winter wheat canopy at the ear stage","volume":"45","author":"Du","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geosci. Remote Sens. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"4248","article-title":"Thermal infrared radiative transfer within three-dimensional vegetation covers","volume":"108","author":"Guillevic","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. (1984\u20132012)"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.902272","article-title":"An extended 3-D radiosity-graphics combined model for studying thermal-emission directionality of crop canopy","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.09.008","article-title":"Using directional TIR measurements and 3D simulations to assess the limitations and opportunities of water stress indices","volume":"90","author":"Luquet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.13031\/trans.59.11215","article-title":"Advances in a Two-Source Energy Balance Model: Partitioning of Evaporation and Transpiration for Cotton","volume":"59","author":"Tolk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2012.06.004","article-title":"Two-source energy balance model estimates of evapotranspiration using component and composite surface temperatures","volume":"50","author":"Colaizzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.09.018","article-title":"A spectral directional reflectance model of row crops","volume":"114","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7632","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6087632","article-title":"Development of a novel bidirectional canopy reflectance model for row-planted rice and wheat","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1109\/36.3017","article-title":"Modeling the gap probability of a discontinuous vegetation canopy","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(71)90092-6","article-title":"A theoretical analysis of the frequency of gaps in plant stands","volume":"8","author":"Nilson","year":"1971","journal-title":"Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(89)90015-1","article-title":"A reflectance model for the homogeneous plant canopy and its inversion","volume":"27","author":"Nilson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90089-O","article-title":"A hotspot model for leaf canopies","volume":"38","author":"Jupp","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.03.010","article-title":"An analytical four-component directional brightness temperature model for crop and forest canopies","volume":"209","author":"Bian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00150-5","article-title":"Multi-angular optical remote sensing for assessing vegetation structure and carbon absorption","volume":"84","author":"Chen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.008","article-title":"Global clumping index map derived from the MODIS BRDF product","volume":"119","author":"He","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bian, Z., Cao, B., Li, H., Du, Y., Song, L., Fan, W., Xiao, Q., and Liu, Q. (2017). A robust inversion algorithm for surface leaf and soil temperatures using the vegetation clumping index. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080780"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000116426","article-title":"Definition of component effective emissivity for heterogeneous and non-isothermal surfaces and its approximate calculation","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.037","article-title":"LAI retrieval and uncertainty evaluations for typical row-planted crops at different growth stages","volume":"112","author":"Yao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/17\/2667\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:02:50Z","timestamp":1760176970000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/17\/2667"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12172667"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12172667","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]}}}