{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T08:37:07Z","timestamp":1778575027917,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,27]],"date-time":"2020-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1598486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we propose the combination of different migration results achieved on the same data in order to account for different values of the propagation velocities of the electromagnetic waves within the considered Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) profile. These different values can be the result of a variable lithological composition or (more probably for short Bscans) the results of different moisture levels, or both. Here, we separately consider the two cases of horizontal or vertical variability of the propagation velocity with a transition zone between two zones with constant propagation velocity. Moreover, we also propose a time-depth conversion accounting for these different values of the propagation velocity along the considered GPR Bscan. The method is applied to real data gathered in the field with regard to a concrete coverage containing liner layers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172778","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,27]],"date-time":"2020-08-27T08:05:18Z","timestamp":1598515518000},"page":"2778","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Combined Migrations and Time-Depth Conversions in GPR Prospecting: Application to Reinforced Concrete"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Raffaele","family":"Persico","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dep. Environmental Engineering, University of Calabria Via Pietro Bucci, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gianfranco","family":"Morelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geostudi Astier Ltd., Via E. Fagni, 31, 57123 Livorno, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1443996","article-title":"Velocity variations and water content estimated from multi-offset, ground-penetrating radar","volume":"61","author":"Greaves","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-007-9282-5","article-title":"Detection of Chlorides and Moisture in Concrete Structures with GPR","volume":"41","author":"Hugenschmidt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Struct. Mater. Constr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2008.05.018","article-title":"Measurement radius of reinforcing steel bar in concrete using digital image GPR","volume":"23","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Jol, H. (2009). Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2014042","article-title":"Effect of the height of the observation line on the diffraction curve in GPR prospecting","volume":"13","author":"Persico","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near Surface Geophys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2462727","article-title":"Smart automated detection of reflection hyperbolas in complex GPR images With No A Priori Knowledge on the Medium","volume":"54","author":"Mertens","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geos. Rem. Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2018-0269.1","article-title":"Diffraction imaging of ground-penetrating radar data","volume":"84","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.910223","article-title":"Effects of the Background Removal in Linear Inverse Scattering","volume":"46","author":"Persico","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2014037","article-title":"Topographic migration of 2D and 3D ground-penetrating radar data considering variable velocities","volume":"8","author":"Allroggen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440826","article-title":"Migration by Fourier Transform","volume":"43","author":"Stolt","year":"1978","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440828","article-title":"Integral formulation for migration in two and three dimensions","volume":"43","author":"Schneider","year":"1978","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Persico, R. (2014). Introduction to Ground Penetrating Radar: Inverse Scattering and Data Processing, Wiley-IEEE Press.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118835647"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Stone, R. (1996). Wavefield inversion of objects in stratified environments: From back-propagation schemes to full solutions. Review of Radio Science 1993\u20131996, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.825590","article-title":"Plane wave characterization of antennas close to a plane interface","volume":"42","author":"Meincke","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geos. Rem. Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Muller, P., Schurmann, M., and Guck, J. (2016). The Theory of Diffraction Tomography, Cornell University."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6983","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2306325","article-title":"A multiple migration and stacking algorithms designed for land mine detection","volume":"52","author":"Schofield","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7221","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2912318","article-title":"Energy flow domain reverse-time migration for borehole radar","volume":"57","author":"Huo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1002\/nsg.12032","article-title":"Application of ground penetrating radar to detect tunnel lining defects based on improved full waveform inversion and reverse time migration","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/nsg.12031","article-title":"The fate of the historic fortifications at Alcatraz Island based on terrestrial scans and ground-penetrating radar interpretations from the recreation yard","volume":"17","author":"Everett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sala, J., and Linford, N. (2010, January 21\u201325). Processing stepped frequency continuous wave GPR system so to obtain maximum value from archaeological data sets. Proceedings of the XIII Internarional Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Lecce, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICGPR.2010.5550093"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, X., Podd, F.J.W., van Verre, W., Daniels, D.J., and Peyton, A.J. (2019). Investigating the Performance of Bi-Static GPR Antennas for Near-Surface Object Detection. Sensors (Basel), 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010170"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1438126","article-title":"Seismic velocities from surface measurements","volume":"20","author":"Dix","year":"1955","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2017046","article-title":"Measurement of dielectric and magnetic properties of Materials by means of a TDR probe","volume":"16","author":"Persico","year":"2018","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERM19111904","article-title":"Preliminary Experimental Measurements of the Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of a Material with a Coaxial TDR Probe in Reflection Mode","volume":"91","author":"Farhat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodman, D., and Piro, S. (2013). GPR Remote Sensing in Archaeology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31857-3"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2006.0147","article-title":"Application of Microwave Tomography in Hydrogeophysics: Some examples","volume":"7","author":"Soldovieri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2015042","article-title":"Integration of multisensor data: An experiment in the archaeological park of Egnazia (Apulia, Southern Italy)","volume":"13","author":"Matera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1002\/nsg.12046","article-title":"GPR Investigations at St John\u2019s Co-Cathedral in Valletta","volume":"17","author":"Persico","year":"2019","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/17\/2778\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:07:23Z","timestamp":1760177243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/17\/2778"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,27]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12172778"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12172778","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,27]]}}}