{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T05:12:35Z","timestamp":1769836355554,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]],"date-time":"2020-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Establishing linkages between light detection and ranging (lidar) data, produced from interrogating forest canopies, to the highly complex forest structures, composition, and traits that such forests contain, remains an extremely difficult problem. Radiative transfer models have been developed to help solve this problem and test new sensor platforms in a virtual environment. Many forest canopy studies include the major assumption of isotropic (Lambertian) reflecting and transmitting leaves or non-transmitting leaves. Here, we study when these assumptions may be valid and evaluate their associated impacts\/effects on the lidar waveform, as well as its dependence on wavelength, lidar footprint, view angle, and leaf angle distribution (LAD), by using the Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) remote sensing radiative transfer simulation model. The largest effects of Lambertian assumptions on the waveform are observed at visible wavelengths, small footprints, and oblique interrogation angles relative to the mean leaf angle. For example, a 77% increase in return signal was observed with a configuration of a 550 nm wavelength, 10 cm footprint, and 45\u00b0 interrogation angle to planophile leaves. These effects are attributed to (i) the bidirectional scattering distribution function (BSDF) becoming almost purely specular in the visible, (ii) small footprints having fewer leaf angles to integrate over, and (iii) oblique angles causing diminished backscatter due to forward scattering. Non-transmitting leaf assumptions have the greatest error for large footprints at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths. Regardless of leaf angle distribution, all simulations with non-transmitting leaves with a 5 m footprint and 1064 nm wavelength saw around a 15% reduction in return signal. We attribute the signal reduction to the increased multiscatter contribution for larger fields of view, and increased transmission at NIR wavelengths. Armed with the knowledge from this study, researchers will be able to select appropriate sensor configurations to account for or limit BSDF effects in forest lidar data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182909","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]],"date-time":"2020-09-08T09:03:48Z","timestamp":1599555828000},"page":"2909","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Simulations of Leaf BSDF Effects on Lidar Waveforms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7003-4247","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin D.","family":"Roth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adam A.","family":"Goodenough","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Scott D.","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jan A.","family":"van Aardt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M. Grady","family":"Saunders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2683-5239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keith","family":"Krause","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Battelle, NEON Program, Boulder, CO 80301, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.034","article-title":"Remote sensing support for national forest inventories","volume":"110","author":"McRoberts","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Franklin, S. (2010). Remote Sensing for Sustainable Forest Management, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berk, A., Conforti, P., Kennett, R., Perkins, T., Hawes, F., and Van Den Bosch, J. (2014, January 24\u201327). MODTRAN\u00ae 6: A major upgrade of the MODTRAN\u00ae radiative transfer code. Proceedings of the 2014 6th Workshop on Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing (WHISPERS), Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WHISPERS.2014.8077573"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70201667","article-title":"Discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART 5) for modeling airborne and satellite spectroradiometer and LIDAR acquisitions of natural and urban landscapes","volume":"7","author":"Yin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Han, Y. (2006). JCSDA Community Radiative Transfer Model (CRTM): Version 1."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Stamnes, K., Tsay, S.-C., Wiscombe, W., and Laszlo, I. (2000). DISORT, A General-Purpose Fortran Program for Discrete-Ordinate-Method Radiative Transfer in Scattering and Emitting Layered Media: Documentation of Methodology, NASA Technical Reports."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68780B","DOI":"10.1117\/12.763812","article-title":"A first principles atmospheric propagation & characterization tool: The laser environmental effects definition and reference (LEEDR)","volume":"Volume 6878","author":"Fiorino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Atmospheric Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves II"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.02.009","article-title":"Simulating the impact of discrete-return lidar system and survey characteristics over young conifer and broadleaf forests","volume":"114","author":"Disney","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1109\/36.662732","article-title":"Raytran: A Monte Carlo ray-tracing model to compute light scattering in three-dimensional heterogeneous media","volume":"36","author":"Govaerts","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1109\/36.752217","article-title":"An analytical hybrid GORT model for bidirectional reflectance over discontinuous plant canopies","volume":"37","author":"Ni","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodenough, A.A., and Brown, S.D. (2012, January 9). DIRSIG 5: Core design and implementation. Proceedings of the Algorithms Technol. Multispectral, Hyperspectral, Ultraspectral Imag XVIII, Baltimore, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.919321"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.05.019","article-title":"Assessing forest structural and physiological information content of multi-spectral LiDAR waveforms by radiative transfer modelling","volume":"113","author":"Morsdorf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(88)90026-0","article-title":"Calculation of canopy bidirectional reflectance using the Monte Carlo method","volume":"24","author":"Ross","year":"1988","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1051\/agro:19990304","article-title":"Radiative models for architectural modeling","volume":"19","author":"Chelle","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agronomie"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"655","article-title":"Spot Dem Shading For Landsat-tm Topographic correction","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Newton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IGARSS\u201991 Remote Sensing: Global Monitoring for Earth Management"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00155-7","article-title":"Topographic effects in AVHRR NDVI data","volume":"54","author":"Burgess","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(90)90031-G","article-title":"Inversion of Monte Carlo model for estimating vegetation canopy parameters","volume":"33","author":"Antyufeev","year":"1990","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1117\/1.602459","article-title":"Synthetic image generation of chemical plumes for hyperspectral applications","volume":"39","author":"Kuo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EA000506","article-title":"The GEDI simulator: A large-footprint waveform lidar simulator for calibration and validation of spaceborne missions","volume":"6","author":"Hancock","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth SP Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.1999.10874709","article-title":"An Advanced Synthetic Image Generation Model and its Application to Multi\/Hyperspectral Algorithm Development","volume":"25","author":"Schott","year":"1999","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4073(01)00007-3","article-title":"A two-layer canopy reflectance model","volume":"71","author":"Kuusk","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.05.026","article-title":"Stochastic transport theory for investigating the three-dimensional canopy structure from space measurements","volume":"112","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2007.01.053","article-title":"Stochastic radiative transfer model for mixture of discontinuous vegetation canopies","volume":"107","author":"Shabanov","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00129-2","article-title":"3-D Scene Modeling of Semidesert Vegetation Cover and its Radiation Regime","volume":"74","author":"Qin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2018.08.024","article-title":"Contribution of leaf specular reflection to canopy reflectance under black soil case using stochastic radiative transfer model","volume":"263","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.05.033","article-title":"Estimation of leaf area index and its sunlit portion from DSCOVR EPIC data: Theoretical basis","volume":"198","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2598442","article-title":"Influences of Leaf-Specular Reflection on Canopy BRF Characteristics: A Case Study of Real Maize Canopies with a 3-D Scene BRDF Model","volume":"55","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(89)90086-2","article-title":"The influence of leaf orientation and the specular component of leaf reflectance on the canopy bidirectional reflectance","volume":"27","author":"Ross","year":"1989","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Walter-Shea, E.A. (1987). Laboratory and Field Measurements of Leaf Spectral Properties and Canopy Architecture and their Effects on Canopy Reflectance. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nebraska]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43510","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3361375","article-title":"NEON: The first continental-scale ecological observatory with airborne remote sensing of vegetation canopy biochemistry and structure","volume":"4","author":"Kampe","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-003-0365-7","article-title":"LIDAR optical rugosity of coral reefs in Biscayne National Park, Florida","volume":"23","author":"Brock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00002-7","article-title":"The Laser Vegetation Imaging Sensor: A medium-altitude, digitisation-only, airborne laser altimeter for mapping vegetation and topography","volume":"54","author":"Blair","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4045","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5084045","article-title":"NASA Goddard\u2019s LiDAR, hyperspectral and thermal (G-LiHT) airborne imager","volume":"5","author":"Cook","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00091-1","article-title":"Use of Large-Footprint Scanning Airborne Lidar To Estimate Forest Stand Characteristics in the Western Cascades of Oregon","volume":"67","author":"Means","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollaus, M., M\u00fccke, W., Roncat, A., Pfeifer, N., and Briese, C. (2014). Full-waveform airborne laser scanning systems and their possibilities in forest applications. Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8_3"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schutz, B.E., Zwally, H.J., Shuman, C.A., Hancock, D., and DiMarzio, J.P. (2005). Overview of the ICESat mission. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL024009"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2034765","article-title":"The ICESat-2 laser altimetry mission","volume":"98","author":"Abdalati","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"ISS observations offer insights into plant function","volume":"1","author":"Stavros","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.07.010","article-title":"Simulation of satellite, airborne and terrestrial LiDAR with DART (I): Waveform simulation with quasi-Monte Carlo ray tracing","volume":"184","author":"Yin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2005.12.001","article-title":"Gaussian decomposition and calibration of a novel small-footprint full-waveform digitising airborne laser scanner","volume":"60","author":"Wagner","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.04.003","article-title":"Range and AGC normalization in airborne discrete-return LiDAR intensity data for forest canopies","volume":"65","author":"Korpela","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"163","article-title":"Radiometric calibration of full-waveform small-footprint airborne laser scanners","volume":"37","author":"Wagner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"213","article-title":"Normalization of Lidar Intensity Data Based on Range and Surface Incidence Angle","volume":"38","author":"Jutzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"86","article-title":"Extraction of lines from laser point clouds","volume":"36","author":"Gross","year":"2006","journal-title":"Symp. ISPRS Comm. III Photogramm. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.10.001","article-title":"3D leaf water content mapping using terrestrial laser scanner backscatter intensity with radiometric correction","volume":"110","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Beckmann, P., and Spizzichino, A. (1987). The scattering of Electromagnetic Waves from Rough Surfaces, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(99)00052-8","article-title":"Lidar Remote Sensing of the Canopy Structure and Biophysical Properties of Douglas-Fir Western Hemlock Forests","volume":"70","author":"Lefsky","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2274761","article-title":"Extracting structural vegetation components from small-footprint waveform lidar for biomass estimation in savanna ecosystems","volume":"7","author":"McGlinchy","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.5589\/m12-007","article-title":"Fusing small-footprint waveform LiDAR and hyperspectral data for canopy-level species classification and herbaceous biomass modeling in savanna ecosystems","volume":"37","author":"Sarrazin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"152","article-title":"Exploring full-waveform LiDAR parameters for tree species classification","volume":"13","author":"Heinzel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.12.003","article-title":"Urban vegetation detection using radiometrically calibrated small-footprint full-waveform airborne LiDAR data","volume":"67","author":"Hollaus","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2003.08.001","article-title":"Review of methods for in situ leaf area index (LAI) determination: Part II. Estimation of LAI, errors and sampling","volume":"121","author":"Weiss","year":"2004","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-7-2193-2014","article-title":"Modeling stomatal conductance in the earth system: Linking leaf water-use efficiency and water transport along the soil\u2013plant\u2013atmosphere continuum","volume":"7","author":"Bonan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2018.11.017","article-title":"Leaf area density from airborne LiDAR: Comparing sensors and resolutions in a temperate broadleaf forest ecosystem","volume":"433","author":"Kamoske","year":"2019","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1406","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2012.01864.x","article-title":"Amazon forest carbon dynamics predicted by profiles of canopy leaf area and light environment","volume":"15","author":"Stark","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/biu234","article-title":"Assessing interactions among changing climate, management, and disturbance in forests: A macrosystems approach","volume":"65","author":"Becknell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioscience"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.2307\/1933693","article-title":"Foliage profile by vertical measurements","volume":"50","author":"MacArthur","year":"1969","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2002)052[0019:LRSFES]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing for ecosystem studies: Lidar, an emerging remote sensing technology that directly measures the three-dimensional distribution of plant canopies, can accurately estimate vegetation structural attributes and should be of particular inte","volume":"52","author":"Lefsky","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bioscience"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2004.09.006","article-title":"Methodology comparison for canopy structure parameters extraction from digital hemispherical photography in boreal forests","volume":"129","author":"Leblanc","year":"2005","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(97)00269-7","article-title":"Estimation of leaf area index with the Li-Cor LAI 2000 in deciduous forests","volume":"105","author":"Cutini","year":"1998","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.03.001","article-title":"Mapping defoliation during a severe insect attack on Scots pine using airborne laser scanning","volume":"102","author":"Solberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatziolis, D., and Andersen, H.-E. (2008). A Guide to LIDAR Data Acquisition and Processing for the Forests of the Pacific Northwest, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-768.","DOI":"10.2737\/PNW-GTR-768"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"414","article-title":"From Single-Pulse to Full-Waveform Airborne Laser Scanners: Potential and Practical Challenges","volume":"35","author":"Wagner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Geoinf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Hagstrom, S.T. (2014). Voxel-Based LIDAR Analysis and Applications. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL010484","article-title":"Modeling laser altimeter return waveforms over complex vegetation using high-resolution elevation data","volume":"26","author":"Blair","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Chauve, A., Mallet, C., Bretar, F., Durrieu, S., Deseilligny, M.P., and Puech, W. (2008). Processing full-waveform lidar data: Modelling raw signals. Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences 2007, ISPRS."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.010","article-title":"A coupled 1-D atmosphere and 3-D canopy radiative transfer model for canopy reflectance, light environment, and photosynthesis simulation in a heterogeneous landscape","volume":"112","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(91)90032-2","article-title":"A computer graphics based model for scattering from objects of arbitrary shapes in the optical region","volume":"36","author":"Goel","year":"1991","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1109\/36.951085","article-title":"Modeling lidar waveforms in heterogeneous and discrete canopies","volume":"39","author":"Jupp","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burton, R.R., Schott, J.R., and Brown, S.D. (2002, January 7\u201311). Elastic ladar modeling for synthetic imaging applications. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Optical Science and Technology, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.451630"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Plachetka, T. (1998, January 23\u201325). POV Ray: Persistence of vision parallel raytracer. Proceedings of the Spring Conference on Computer Graphics, Budmerice, Slovakia."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.001","article-title":"Development of a simulation model to predict LiDAR interception in forested environments","volume":"111","author":"Goodwin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903380664","article-title":"A Monte Carlo radiative transfer model of satellite waveform LiDAR","volume":"31","author":"North","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotchenova, S.Y., Shabanov, N.V., Knyazikhin, Y., Davis, A.B., Dubayah, R., and Myneni, R.B. (2003). Modeling Lidar waveforms with time-dependent stochastic radiative transfer theory for remote estimations of forest structure. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD003288"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.02.018","article-title":"Investigating assumptions of crown archetypes for modelling LiDAR returns","volume":"134","author":"Calders","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, H., Wang, C., Xi, X., Tian, J., and Zhou, G. (2017). Simulating the Effects of the Airborne Lidar Scanning Angle, Flying Altitude, and Pulse Density for Forest Foliage Profile Retrieval. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7070712"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Morsdorf, F., Frey, O., Koetz, B., and Meier, E. (2007, January 12\u201314). Ray tracing for modeling of small footprint airborne laser scanning returns. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop \u2018Laser Scanning 2007 and SilviLaser 2007\u2019, Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Blevins, D.D. (2005). Modeling Multiple Scattering and Absorption for a Differential Absorption LIDAR System. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.79.12.1147","article-title":"3D Tree Reconstruction from Simulated Small Footprint Waveform Lidar","volume":"79","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S60","DOI":"10.5589\/m13-015","article-title":"Assessing the impact of broadleaf tree structure on airborne full-waveform small-footprint LiDAR signals through simulation","volume":"39","author":"Romanczyk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3242","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2178420","article-title":"A robust signal preprocessing chain for small-footprint waveform lidar","volume":"50","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2103080","article-title":"A comparison of signal deconvolution algorithms based on small-footprint LiDAR waveform simulation","volume":"49","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6869","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50497","article-title":"The fourth radiation transfer model intercomparison (RAMI-IV): Proficiency testing of canopy reflectance models with ISO-13528","volume":"118","author":"Widlowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"(2019, June 11). Lidar Modality Handbook. Available online: https:\/\/dirsig.cis.rit.edu\/docs\/new\/lidar.html."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4818","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2758964","article-title":"DIRSIG5: Next-generation remote sensing data and image simulation framework","volume":"10","author":"Goodenough","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.2988428","article-title":"On Leaf BRDF Estimates and Their Fit to Microfacet Models","volume":"13","author":"Roth","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Roth, B. (2020). Broad Leaf Bidirectional Scattering Distribution Functions (BSDFs). Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.14.001338","article-title":"Efficient technique to determine backscattered light power for various atmospheric and oceanic sounding and imaging systems","volume":"14","author":"Katsev","year":"1997","journal-title":"JOSA A"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(84)90057-9","article-title":"Light scattering by leaf layers with application to canopy reflectance modeling: The SAIL model","volume":"16","author":"Verhoef","year":"1984","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"De Wit, C.T. (1965). Photosynthesis of Leaf Canopies, Wageningen University."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2012.10.011","article-title":"Is the spherical leaf inclination angle distribution a valid assumption for temperate and boreal broadleaf tree species?","volume":"169","author":"Pisek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.03.006","article-title":"Lidar-based mapping of leaf area index and its use for validating GLOBCARBON satellite LAI product in a temperate forest of the southern USA","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.10.004","article-title":"Generalizing predictive models of forest inventory attributes using an area-based approach with airborne LiDAR data","volume":"156","author":"Bouvier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2009.02.007","article-title":"Modeling approaches to estimate effective leaf area index from aerial discrete-return LIDAR","volume":"149","author":"Richardson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Romanczyk, P. (2015). Extraction of Vegetation Biophysical Structure from Small-Footprint Full-Waveform Lidar Signals. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2011.2113312","article-title":"A multispectral canopy LiDAR demonstrator project","volume":"8","author":"Woodhouse","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.02.001","article-title":"Multi-wavelength canopy LiDAR for remote sensing of vegetation: Design and system performance","volume":"69","author":"Wei","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Thomas, J.J. (2015). Terrain Classification Using Multi-Wavelength LiDAR Data. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School Monterey United States]."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Bunnik, N. (1978). The Multispectral Reflectance of Shortwave Radiation by Agricultural Crops in Relation with Their Morphological and Optical Properties. [Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen University]."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/18\/2909\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:07:59Z","timestamp":1760177279000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/18\/2909"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12182909"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12182909","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]}}}