{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T12:09:13Z","timestamp":1784549353767,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,15]],"date-time":"2020-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mapping geological outcrops is a crucial part of mineral exploration, mine planning and ore extraction. With the advent of unmanned aerial systems (UASs) for rapid spatial and spectral mapping, opportunities arise in fields where traditional ground-based approaches are established and trusted, but fail to cover sufficient area or compromise personal safety. Multi-sensor UAS are a technology that change geoscientific research, but they are still not routinely used for geological mapping in exploration and mining due to lack of trust in their added value and missing expertise and guidance in the selection and combination of drones and sensors. To address these limitations and highlight the potential of using UAS in exploration settings, we present an UAS multi-sensor mapping approach based on the integration of drone-borne photography, multi- and hyperspectral imaging and magnetics. Data are processed with conventional methods as well as innovative machine learning algorithms and validated by geological field mapping, yielding a comprehensive and geologically interpretable product. As a case study, we chose the northern extension of the Siilinj\u00e4rvi apatite mine in Finland, in a brownfield exploration setting with plenty of ground truth data available and a survey area that is partly covered by vegetation. We conducted rapid UAS surveys from which we created a multi-layered data set to investigate properties of the ore-bearing carbonatite-glimmerite body. Our resulting geologic map discriminates between the principal lithologic units and distinguishes ore-bearing from waste rocks. Structural orientations and lithological units are deduced based on high-resolution, hyperspectral image-enhanced point clouds. UAS-based magnetic data allow an insight into their subsurface geometry through modeling based on magnetic interpretation. We validate our results via ground survey including rock specimen sampling, geochemical and mineralogical analysis and spectroscopic point measurements. We are convinced that the presented non-invasive, data-driven mapping approach can complement traditional workflows in mineral exploration as a flexible tool. Mapping products based on UAS data increase efficiency and maximize safety of the resource extraction process, and reduce expenses and incidental wastes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182998","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,15]],"date-time":"2020-09-15T10:24:09Z","timestamp":1600165449000},"page":"2998","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Integrated Geological and Geophysical Mapping of a Carbonatite-Hosting Outcrop in Siilinj\u00e4rvi, Finland, Using Unmanned Aerial Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5696-8721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Jackisch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8464-2331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Lorenz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1512-5511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moritz","family":"Kirsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6200-2704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Zimmermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Tusa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markku","family":"Pirttij\u00e4rvi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radai Oy, Teknologiantie 18, 90590 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ari","family":"Saartenoja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radai Oy, Teknologiantie 18, 90590 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hernan","family":"Ugalde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DIP Geosciences, 100 Burris Street, Hamilton, ON L8M 2J5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuleika","family":"Madriz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mikko","family":"Savolainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yara Suomi Oy, Nilsi\u00e4ntie 50, 71801 Siilinj\u00e4rvi, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4383-473X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Gloaguen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Division \u201cExploration Technology\u201d, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105100","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2932119","article-title":"Il Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Agriculture: A Review of Perspective of Platform, Control, and Applications","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ad\u00e3o, T., Hru\u0161ka, J., P\u00e1dua, L., Bessa, J., Peres, E., Morais, R., and Sousa, J.J. 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