{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T16:40:17Z","timestamp":1774543217639,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]],"date-time":"2020-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The automatic extraction of geospatial information is an important aspect of data mining. Computer systems capable of discovering geographic information from natural language involve a complex process called geoparsing, which includes two important tasks: geographic entity recognition and toponym resolution. The first task could be approached through a machine learning approach, in which case a model is trained to recognize a sequence of characters (words) corresponding to geographic entities. The second task consists of assigning such entities to their most likely coordinates. Frequently, the latter process involves solving referential ambiguities. In this paper, we propose an extensible geoparsing approach including geographic entity recognition based on a neural network model and disambiguation based on what we have called dynamic context disambiguation. Once place names are recognized in an input text, they are solved using a grammar, in which a set of rules specifies how ambiguities could be solved, in a similar way to that which a person would utilize, considering the context. As a result, we have an assignment of the most likely geographic properties of the recognized places. We propose an assessment measure based on a ranking of closeness relative to the predicted and actual locations of a place name. Regarding this measure, our method outperforms OpenStreetMap Nominatim. We include other assessment measures to assess the recognition ability of place names and the prediction of what we called geographic levels (administrative jurisdiction of places).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12183041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,18]],"date-time":"2020-09-18T07:27:33Z","timestamp":1600414053000},"page":"3041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Adaptive Geoparsing Method for Toponym Recognition and Resolution in Unstructured Text"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8315-1813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edwin","family":"Aldana-Bobadilla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Conacyt-Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. (Cinvestav), Victoria 87130, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9398-8844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Molina-Villegas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Conacyt-Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Ciencias de Informaci\u00f3n Geoespacial (Centrogeo), M\u00e9rida 97302, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7464-8438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Lopez-Arevalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad Tamaulipas (Cinvestav Tamaulipas), Victoria 87130, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Shanel","family":"Reyes-Palacios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad Tamaulipas (Cinvestav Tamaulipas), Victoria 87130, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4810-3714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Mu\u00f1iz-Sanchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Matem\u00e1ticas (Cimat), Monterrey 66628, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Jean","family":"Arreola-Trapala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Matem\u00e1ticas (Cimat), Monterrey 66628, Mexico"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Aguirre, E., Alegria, I., Artetxe, M., Aranberri, N., Barrena, A., Branco, A., Popel, M., Burchardt, A., Labaka, G., and Osenova, P. (2015). Report on the State of the Art of Named Entity and Word Sense Disambiguation, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa on behalf of QTLeap. Technical Report 4."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.datak.2012.07.002","article-title":"Every document has a geographical scope","volume":"81\u201382","author":"Andogah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Data Knowl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-019-09475-3","article-title":"A pragmatic guide to geoparsing evaluation","volume":"54","author":"Gritta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lang. Resour. Eval."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810701626251","article-title":"A conceptual density-based approach for the disambiguation of toponyms","volume":"22","author":"Buscaldi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agirre, E., and Rigau, G. (1996, January 5\u20139). Word sense disambiguation using conceptual density. Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Computational Linguistics, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.3115\/992628.992635"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1145\/219717.219748","article-title":"WordNet: A lexical database for English","volume":"38","author":"Miller","year":"1995","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michael, H., Lieberman, D., and Sankaranayananan, J. (2010, January 18\u201319). Geotagging: Using proximity, sibling, and prominence clues to understand comma groups. Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Geographic Information Retrieval. ACM, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1145\/1722080.1722088"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30086","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2843814","article-title":"Geotagging Text Data on the Web A Geometrical Approach","volume":"06","author":"Radke","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woodruff, A., and Plaunt, C. (1996). GIPSY: Automated Geographic Indexing of Text Documents. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci., 45.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4571(199410)45:9<645::AID-ASI2>3.0.CO;2-8"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10844-017-0458-3","article-title":"Location detection and disambiguation from twitter messages","volume":"49","author":"Inkpen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intell. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Gupta, R. (2014). Conditional Random Fields. Computer Vision: A Reference Guide, Springer."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"Article 40","DOI":"10.1145\/3202662","article-title":"Location Extraction from Social Media: Geoparsing, Location Disambiguation and Geotagging","volume":"36","author":"Middleton","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12510","article-title":"GeoTxt: A scalable geoparsing system for unstructured text geolocation","volume":"23","author":"Karimzadeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rupp, C., Rayson, P., Baron, A., Donaldson, C., Gregory, I., Hardie, A., and Murrieta-Flores, P. (2013, January 6\u20139). Customising geoparsing and georeferencing for historical texts. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Big Data, Big Data, Silicon Valley, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2013.6691671"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Tobin, R., Grover, C., Byrne, K., Reid, J., and Walsh, J. Evaluation of Georeferencing. Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Geographic Information Retrieval."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Mani, I., Hitzeman, J., Richer, J., Harris, D., Quimby, R., and Wellner, B. (2008, January 28\u201330). SpatialML: Annotation Scheme, Corpora, and Tools. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, LREC 2008, Marrakech, Morocco."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ardanuy, M.C., and Sporleder, C. (2017, January 1\u20132). Toponym disambiguation in historical documents using semantic and geographic features. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Digital Access to Textual Cultural Heritage, G\u00f6ttingen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/3078081.3078099"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Pantaleo, G., and Nesi, P. (2014, January 6\u20137). Ge(o)Lo(cator): Geographic Information Extraction from Unstructured Text Data and Web Documents. Proceedings of the 2014 9th International Workshop on Semantic and Social Media Adaptation and Personalization, Corfu, Greece."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Martins, B., and Silva, M. (2005, January 27\u201330). A Graph-Ranking Algorithm for Geo-Referencing Documents. Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Page, L., Brin, S., Motwani, R., and Winograd, T. (1999). The PageRank Citation Ranking: Bringing Order to the Web, Stanford InfoLab. Technical Report 1999-66."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2005.08.003","article-title":"Adding geographic scopes to web resources","volume":"30","author":"Silva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gelernter, J., and Zhang, W. (2013, January 5). Cross-lingual geo-parsing for non-structured data. Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Geographic Information Retrieval, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2533888.2533943"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moncla, L., Renteria-Agualimpia, W., Nogueras-Iso, J., and Gaio, M. (2014, January 4\u20137). Geocoding for texts with fine-grain toponyms: An experiment on a geoparsed hiking descriptions corpus. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Dallas\/Fort Worth, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2666310.2666386"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"143","article-title":"Extracci\u00f3n autom\u00e1tica de referencias geoespaciales en discurso libre usando t\u00e9cnicas de procesamiento de lenguaje natural y teor\u00eda de la accesibilidad","volume":"63","author":"Siordia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nat. Lang. Process."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Cucerzan, S., and Yarowsky, D. (1999, January 21\u201322). Language independent named entity recognition combining morphological and contextual evidence. Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Very Large Corpora, College Park, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, P., Fu, T., and Ma, W. (2020, January 7\u201312). Why Attention? Analyze BiLSTM Deficiency and Its Remedies in the Case of NER. Proceedings of the The Thirty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v34i05.6338"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Xiao, F., and Zhao, H. (2020, January 7\u201312). Hierarchical Contextualized Representation for Named Entity Recognition. Proceedings of the Thirty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2020), New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Li, X., Feng, J., Meng, Y., Han, Q., Wu, F., and Li, J. A Unified MRC Framework for Named Entity Recognition. Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Mikolov, T., Chen, K., Corrado, G., and Dean, J. (2013). Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pennington, J., Socher, R., and Manning, C.D. (2014, January 25\u201329). Glove: Global vectors for word representation. Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/D14-1162"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00051","article-title":"Enriching Word Vectors with Subword Information","volume":"5","author":"Bojanowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horn, F. (2017). Context encoders as a simple but powerful extension of word2vec. arXiv.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W17-2602"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Trapala, J.A. (2019). Reconocimiento de Entidades Nombradas Georeferenciables con Word Embeddings. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Matem\u00e1ticas]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2019.106057","article-title":"An integrated approach for strategic and tactical decisions for the emergency medical service: Exploring optimization and metamodel-based simulation for vehicle location","volume":"137","author":"Amorim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tele.2016.08.002","article-title":"Logistics service design for cross-border E-commerce using Kansei engineering with text-mining-based online content analysis","volume":"34","author":"Hsiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Telemat. Inform."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/18\/3041\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:11:01Z","timestamp":1760177461000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/18\/3041"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12183041"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12183041","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]}}}