{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T00:33:19Z","timestamp":1778632399207,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,14]],"date-time":"2020-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1602633600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41874090; 41774091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874090; 41774091"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The construction of a high-resolution dynamic water storage model, driven by the mass load of the huge water storage of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), is the necessary basic data for accurately simulating changes in the geophysical field, e.g., gravity, crustal deformation, and stress. However, previously established models cannot meet the needs of accurately simulating the impoundment effects of TGR, because these models were simplified and approximated and did not consider the variation of river boundaries caused by water level changes. In this study, we combined high-resolution Gaofen-1 (GF-1) satellite imageries and real-time water level in front of the dam and extracted 31 river boundaries of the head region of TGR between the lowest (145 m) and the highest (175 m) impoundment stages based on the Normalized Differential Water Index (NDWI) and threshold segmentation from Otsu method. Developed dynamic water storage model based on higher-resolution GF-1 data can show the true river boundary changes more exactly, especially in local areas. Compared to the previous approximate models, the model that we constructed accurately depicts the boundary distribution information of the different impoundment stages. Moreover, we simulated TGR-induced gravitational effects based on the high-precision forward modeling of the dynamic water storage model (i.e., considering changes of dynamic water area and water level). The theoretical modelled results are consistent with in situ gravity measurements with the difference mainly within 10 \u03bcGal. Our results indicate that water storage variations of TGR mainly affect the gravity field response within 1000 m of the reservoir bank with its maximum amplitude up to several hundred \u03bcGal. The dynamic water storage and its simulation results of gravitational effects can effectively eliminate the impact of surface water load driven by the TGR under human control and greatly improve the signal-to-noise ratio of regional gravity observational data. Thus, this work will be beneficial in the application of geophysical and geodetic monitoring aimed to comprehensively track the local and regional geological structural stability, e.g., artificial reservoir induced earthquake and landslide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12203353","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,14]],"date-time":"2020-10-14T21:24:39Z","timestamp":1602710679000},"page":"3353","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Simulation of the Dynamic Water Storage and Its Gravitational Effect in the Head Region of Three Gorges Reservoir Using Imageries of Gaofen-1"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Xian","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3980-479X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linsong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"},{"name":"Three Gorges Research Center for Geo-Hazard, Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"},{"name":"Three Gorges Research Center for Geo-Hazard, Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jinsong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Subsurface Multi-Scale Imaging Key Laboratory, Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shida","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Exploration Technology and Engineering, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang 050031, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044012","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/4\/044012","article-title":"Downstream Yangtze River levels impacted by Three Gorges Dam. Environ","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.07.003","article-title":"Deriving scaling factors using a global hydrological model to restore GRACE total water storage changes for China\u2019s Yangtze River Basin","volume":"168","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL016457","article-title":"Time-variable gravity signal during the water impoundment of China\u2019s Three-Gorges Reservoir","volume":"29","author":"Boy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W12502","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010534","article-title":"Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) detection of water storage changes in the Three Gorges Reservoir of China and comparison with in situ measurements","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2017.09.008","article-title":"Monitoring of the temporal and spatial variation of groundwater storage in the Three Gorges area based on the CORS network","volume":"146","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F.P., Wang, Z.T., Chao, N.F., and Song, Q.Y. (2018). Assessing the Influence of the Three Gorges Dam on Hydrological Drought Using GRACE Data. Water., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10050669"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2019.105267","article-title":"Geohazards in the three Gorges Reservoir Area, China\u2013Lessons learned from decades of research","volume":"261","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-019-03661-w","article-title":"Monitoring and analysis of geological hazards in Three Gorges area based on load impact change","volume":"97","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4001","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500176788","article-title":"Analysis of the water volume, length, total area and inundated area of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China using the SRTM DEM data","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2013.03.041","article-title":"Analysis of lengths, water areas and volumes of the Three Gorges Reservoir at different water levels using Landsat images and SRTM DEM data","volume":"304","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2014.06.007","article-title":"Surface gravity and deformation effects of water storage changes in China\u2019s Three Gorges Reservoir constrained by modeled results and in situ measurements","volume":"108","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1148","article-title":"A Water Storage Loading Model by SRTM-DEM Data and Surface Response Simulation of Gravity and Deformation in the Three Gorges Reservoir of China","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2017.07.014","article-title":"Influences of the Three Gorges Project on seismic activities in the reservoir area","volume":"62","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4491","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3349-8","article-title":"Impact of impoundment on groundwater seepage in the Three Gorges Dam in China based on CFCs and stable isotopes","volume":"72","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RG2004","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183","article-title":"The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"249","article-title":"A global assessment of the SRTM performance. Photogramm","volume":"72","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.11.038","article-title":"Regional differences of lake evolution across China during 1960s\u20132015 and its natural and anthropogenic causes","volume":"221","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M.L., Du, L.J., Ke, Y.H., Huang, M.Y., Zhang, J., Zhao, Y., Li, X.J., and Gong, H.L. (2019). Impact of Climate Variabilities and Human Activities on Surface Water Extents in Reservoirs of Yong ding River Basin, China, from 1985 to 2016 Based on Landsat Observations and Time Series Analysis. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11050560"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4378","article-title":"Recent remote sensing applications for hydro and morpho dynamic monitoring and modelling","volume":"43","author":"Entwistle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Jia, M.M., Chen, N.C., and Wang, W. (2018). Long-Term Surface Water Dynamics Analysis Based on Landsat Imagery and the Google Earth Engine Platform: A Case Study in the Middle Yangtze River Basin. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101635"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4173","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6054173","article-title":"Water Feature Extraction and Change Detection Using Multitemporal Landsat Imagery","volume":"6","author":"Rokni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.83.7.509","article-title":"Automated Water Classification in the Tibetan Plateau Using Chinese GF-1 WFV Data","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022003","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.13.022003","article-title":"Using the modified two-mode method to identify surface water in Gaofen-1 images","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5381","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2686640","article-title":"Automatic Balloon Snake Method for Topology Adaptive Water Boundary Extraction: Using GF-1 Satellite Imagery as an Example","volume":"10","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, W.Y., Chen, N.C., and Liu, D.N. (2017). Topology adaptive water boundary extraction based on a modified balloon snake: Using GF-1 satellite images as an example. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9020140"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2491","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2833627","article-title":"An efficient and effective approach for georeferencing AVHRR and GaoFen-1 imageries using inland water bodies","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2012.05404.x","article-title":"A comparison of the gravity field over Central Europe from superconducting gravimeters, GRACE and global hydrological models, using EOF analysis","volume":"189","author":"David","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046101","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/76\/4\/046101","article-title":"The measurement of surface gravity","volume":"76","author":"Crossley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rep. Prog. Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-001-0228-3","article-title":"Prediction of surface horizontal displacements, and gravity and tilt changes caused by filling the Three Gorges Reservoir","volume":"76","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169608948714","article-title":"The use of the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) in the delineation of open water features","volume":"17","author":"McFeeters","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3544","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5073544","article-title":"Using the normalized difference water index (NDWI) within a geographic information system to detect swimming pools for mosquito abatement: A practical approach","volume":"5","author":"McFeeters","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.75.11.1307","article-title":"Analysis of dynamic thresholds for the normalized difference water index","volume":"75","author":"Ji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.029","article-title":"Automated Water Extraction Index: A new technique for surface water mapping using Landsat imagery","volume":"140","author":"Feyisa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L24106","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL045514","article-title":"A half-century of changes in China\u2019s lakes: Global warming or human influence?","volume":"37","author":"Ma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-010-4052-6","article-title":"China\u2019s lakes at present: Number, area and spatial distribution","volume":"54","author":"Ma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160039","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2016.39","article-title":"A lake data set for the Tibetan Plateau from the 1960s, 2005, and 2014","volume":"3","author":"Wan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440685","article-title":"Theoretical modeling of the magnetic and gravitational fields of an arbitrary shaped three-dimensional body","volume":"41","author":"Barnett","year":"1976","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1440973","article-title":"Analytical expressions for gravity anomalies due to homogeneous polyhedral bodies and translations into magnetic anomalies","volume":"44","author":"Okabe","year":"1979","journal-title":"Geophysics"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/20\/3353\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:21:15Z","timestamp":1760178075000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/20\/3353"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,14]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12203353"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12203353","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,14]]}}}