{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T22:10:37Z","timestamp":1761948637077,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,28]],"date-time":"2020-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1603843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007637","name":"Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n (COLCIENCIAS)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["646"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["646"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007637","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advances in near real-time rainstorm prediction using remote sensing have offered important opportunities for effective disaster management. However, this information is subject to several sources of systematic errors that need to be corrected. Temporal and spatial characteristics of both satellite and in-situ data can be combined to enhance the quality of storm estimates. In this study, we present a spatiotemporal object-based method to bias correct two sources of systematic error in satellites: displacement and volume. The method, Spatiotemporal Contiguous Object-based Rainfall Analysis for Bias Correction (ST-CORAbico), uses the spatiotemporal rainfall analysis ST-CORA incorporated with a multivariate kernel density storm segmentation for describing the main storm event characteristics (duration, spatial extension, volume, maximum intensity, centroid). Displacement and volume are corrected by adjusting the spatiotemporal structure and the intensity distribution, respectively. ST-CORAbico was applied to correct the early version of the Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for the Global Precipitation Mission (GPM-IMERG) over the Lower Mekong basin in Thailand during the monsoon season from 2014 to 2017. The performance of ST-CORABico is compared against the Distribution Transformation (DT) and Gamma Quantile Mapping (GQM) probabilistic methods. A total of 120 storm events identified over the study area were classified into short and long-lived storms by using a k-means cluster analysis method. Examples for both storm event types describe the error reduction due to location and magnitude by ST-CORAbico. The results showed that the displacement and magnitude correction made by ST-CORAbico considerably reduced RMSE and bias of GPM-IMERG. In both storm event types, this method showed a lower impact on the spatial correlation of the storm event. In comparison with DT and GQM, ST-CORAbico showed a superior performance, outperforming both approaches. This spatiotemporal bias correction method offers a new approach to enhance the accuracy of satellite-derived information for near real-time estimation of storm events.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,29]],"date-time":"2020-10-29T09:44:53Z","timestamp":1603964693000},"page":"3538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["ST-CORAbico: A Spatiotemporal Object-Based Bias Correction Method for Storm Prediction Detected by Satellite"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6901-4019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Laverde-Barajas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"},{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2773-7817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerald A.","family":"Corzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ate","family":"Poortinga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Spatial Informatics Group, LLC, 2529 Yolanda Ct., Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6392-6084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farrukh","family":"Chishtie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Spatial Informatics Group, LLC, 2529 Yolanda Ct., Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chinaporn","family":"Meechaiya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Susantha","family":"Jayasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peeranan","family":"Towashiraporn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5353-8929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda","family":"Markert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth System Science Center, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, 320 Sparkman Drive, Huntsville, AL 35805, USA"},{"name":"SERVIR Science Coordination Office, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, 320 Sparkman Drive, Huntsville, AL 35805, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9999-1219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Saah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SERVIR-Mekong, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, SM Tower, 24th Floor, 979\/69 Paholyothin Road, Samsen Nai Phayathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Geospatial Analysis Lab, University of San Francisco, 2130 Fulton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lam Hung","family":"Son","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mekong River Commission, Flood Management and Mitigation Programme, 576 National Road No. 2, Sangkat Chak Angre Krom, Khan Menachey, Phnom Penh 12353, Cambodia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sothea","family":"Khem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mekong River Commission, Flood Management and Mitigation Programme, 576 National Road No. 2, Sangkat Chak Angre Krom, Khan Menachey, Phnom Penh 12353, Cambodia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Surajate","family":"Boonya-Aroonnet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hydroinformatic Institute, 901 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Lat Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Winai","family":"Chaowiwat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hydroinformatic Institute, 901 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Lat Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7418-4445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Remko","family":"Uijlenhoet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hydrology and Quantitative Water Management Group, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dimitri P.","family":"Solomatine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2961","article-title":"Lumped surface and sub-surface runoff for erosion modeling within a small hilly watershed in northern Vietnam","volume":"28","author":"Bui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Markert, K.N., Schmidt, C.M., Griffin, R.E., Flores, A.I., Poortinga, A., Saah, D.S., Muench, R.E., Clinton, N.E., Chishtie, F., and Kityuttachai, K. (2018). Historical and operational monitoring of surface sediments in the lower mekong basin using Landsat and Google Earth Engine cloud computing. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060909"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poortinga, A., Bastiaanssen, W., Simons, G., Saah, D., Senay, G., Fenn, M., Bean, B., and Kadyszewski, J. (2017). A self-calibrating runoff and streamflow remote sensing model for ungauged basins using open-access earth observation data. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010086"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3505","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9890","article-title":"Comparison of radar and gauge precipitation data in watershed models across varying spatial and temporal scales","volume":"28","author":"Price","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044037","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/7\/4\/044037","article-title":"A near real-time satellite-based global drought climate data record","volume":"7","author":"AghaKouchak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azarderakhsh, M., Rossow, W.B., Papa, F., Norouzi, H., and Khanbilvardi, R. (2011). Diagnosing water variations within the Amazon basin using satellite data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015997"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, M., Li, H., and Wood, E. (2010). Assessing the skill of satellite-based precipitation estimates in hydrologic applications. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008290"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-2631-2011","article-title":"Bias correction of satellite rainfall estimates using a radar-gauge product\u2014A case study in Oklahoma (USA)","volume":"2011 15","author":"Tesfagiorgis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1978)106<1153:REFGSI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Rain estimation from geosynchronous satellite imagery\u2014Visible and infrared studies","volume":"106","author":"Griffith","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1998)079<1883:TOGIRE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The operational GOES infrared rainfall estimation technique","volume":"79","author":"Vicente","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.820312","article-title":"Multivariate statistical integration of satellite infrared and microwave radiometric measurements for rainfall retrieval at the geostationary scale","volume":"42","author":"Marzano","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5851","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802029677","article-title":"A physically based satellite rainfall estimation method using fluid dynamics modelling","volume":"29","author":"Tapiador","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2000)081<2035:EOPSSE>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Evaluation of PERSIANN system satellite-based estimates of tropical rainfall","volume":"81","author":"Sorooshian","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2004)005<0487:CAMTPG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"CMORPH: A method that produces global precipitation estimates from passive microwave and infrared data at high spatial and temporal resolution","volume":"5","author":"Joyce","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM560.1","article-title":"The TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis (TMPA): Quasi-global, multiyear, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scales","volume":"8","author":"Huffman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huffman, G.J., Adler, R.F., Bolvin, D.T., and Nelkin, E.J. (2010). The TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis (TMPA). Satellite Rainfall Applications for Surface Hydrology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-2915-7_1"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"2019","article-title":"Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) technical documentation","volume":"612","author":"Huffman","year":"2015","journal-title":"NASA\/GSFC Code"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1002\/2017RG000574","article-title":"A review of global precipitation data sets: Data sources, estimation, and intercomparisons","volume":"56","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-12-032.1","article-title":"Validation of satellite-based precipitation products over sparsely gauged African river basins","volume":"13","author":"Thiemig","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7181","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70607181","article-title":"Inter-comparison of high-resolution satellite precipitation products over Central Asia","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimani, M.W., Hoedjes, J.C.B., and Su, Z. (2017). An Assessment of satellite-derived rainfall products relative to ground observations over East Africa. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9050430"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JHM1048.1","article-title":"Statistical evaluation of combined daily gauge observations and rainfall satellite estimates over continental South America","volume":"10","author":"Vila","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6688","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6076688","article-title":"Effect of bias correction of satellite-rainfall estimates on runoff simulations at the source of the Upper Blue Nile","volume":"6","author":"Habib","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(00)00343-7","article-title":"Verification of precipitation in weather systems: Determination of systematic errors","volume":"239","author":"Ebert","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1175\/2009WAF2222241.1","article-title":"The method for object-based diagnostic evaluation (MODE) applied to numerical forecasts from the 2005 NSSL\/SPC Spring Program","volume":"24","author":"Davis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4470","DOI":"10.1175\/2008MWR2415.1","article-title":"SAL\u2014A novel quality measure for the verification of quantitative precipitation forecasts","volume":"136","author":"Wernli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"80","article-title":"An investigation of the ability of a storm scale configuration of the Met Office NWP model to predict floodproducing rainfall","volume":"455","author":"Roberts","year":"2005","journal-title":"UK Met Off. Tech. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"134","article-title":"Verification of the COSMOLEPS new suite in terms of precipitation distribution","volume":"6","author":"Marsigli","year":"2006","journal-title":"COSMO Newsl."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"141","article-title":"A new intensity-scale approach for the verification of spatial precipitation forecasts","volume":"11","author":"Casati","year":"2004","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl. A J. Forecast. Pract. Appl. Train. Tech. Model."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1175\/2009WAF2222257.1","article-title":"New developments of the intensity-scale technique within the Spatial Verification Methods Intercomparison Project","volume":"25","author":"Casati","year":"2010","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.127","article-title":"Using an intensity-scale technique to assess the added benefit of high-resolution model precipitation forecasts","volume":"7","author":"Mittermaier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3248","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR3457.1","article-title":"A displacement-based error measure applied in a regional ensemble forecasting system","volume":"135","author":"Keil","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1175\/2009WAF2222247.1","article-title":"A displacement and amplitude score employing an optical flow technique","volume":"24","author":"Keil","year":"2009","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3196","DOI":"10.1175\/2009MWR2900.1","article-title":"Object-based analysis of satellite-derived precipitation systems over the low-and midlatitude Pacific Ocean","volume":"137","author":"Skok","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.999170","article-title":"An object-based approach for verification of precipitation estimation","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Hsu, K.L., AghaKouchak, A., and Sorooshian, S. (2016). Object-based assessment of satellite precipitation products. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8070547"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demaria, E., Rodriguez, D., Ebert, E., Salio, P., Su, F., and Valdes, J.B. (2011). Evaluation of mesoscale convective systems in South America using multiple satellite products and an object-based approach. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD015157"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le Coz, C., Heemink, A., Verlaan, M., Veldhuis, M.C., and van de Giesen, N. (2019). Correcting position error in precipitation data using image morphing. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11212557"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-11-00147.1","article-title":"Forecasting tornado pathlengths using a three-dimensional object identification algorithm applied to convection-allowing forecasts","volume":"27","author":"Clark","year":"2012","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-13-00098.1","article-title":"Application of object-based time-domain diagnostics for tracking precipitation systems in convection-allowing models","volume":"29","author":"Clark","year":"2014","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Development and implementation of MODE time domain object-based verification. In Proceedings of the 24th Conference Weather and Forecasting, Seattle, WA, USA, 24\u201327 January 2011."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laverde-Barajas, M., Corzo Perez, G., Chishtie, F., Poortinga, A., Uijlenhoet, R., and Solomatine, D. (2020). Decomposing satellite-based rainfall errors in flood estimation: Hydrological responses using a spatiotemporal object-based verification method. J. Hydrol., 125554.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.125554"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Corzo, G., and Varouchakis, E.A. (2019). Spatiotemporal Analysis of Extreme Rainfall Events Using an Object-Based Approach. Spatiotemporal Analysis of Extreme Hydrological Events, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-16-1533-2012","article-title":"A climate-flood link for the lower Mekong River","volume":"16","author":"Delgado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5691","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-018-4471-1","article-title":"Rainy season precipitation variation in the Mekong River basin and its relationship to the Indian and East Asian summer monsoons","volume":"52","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Schneider, U., Fuchs, T., Meyer-Christoffer, A., and Rudolf, B. (2008). Global Precipitation Analysis Products of the GPCC, Deutscher Wetterdienst. Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC), DWD, Internet Publication."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Golden Software, I. (2014). Surfer 12 Users\u2019 Guide: Powerful Contouring, Gridding, and Surface Mapping, Golden Software, Inc.. [12th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Ly, S., Sohier, C., Charles, C., and Degr\u00e9, A. (2012). Effect of raingage density, position and interpolation on rainfall-discharge modelling. EGU2012 Geophysical Research Abstracts, European Geophysical Society."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2013.12.008","article-title":"Spatial interpolation methods applied in the environmental sciences: A review","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6292","article-title":"Rainfall network design using kriging and entropy","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guttman, A. (1984, January 18\u201321). R-Trees: A Dynamic Index Structure for Spatial Searching. Proceedings of the 1984 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA. Available online: http:\/\/www-db.deis.unibo.it\/courses\/SI-LS\/papers\/Gut84.pdf.","DOI":"10.1145\/602259.602266"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1175\/2009WAF2222252.1","article-title":"Toward better understanding of the contiguous rain area (CRA) method for spatial forecast verification","volume":"24","author":"Ebert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bethel, E.W., Childs, H., and Hansen, C. (2012). High Performance Visualization: Enabling Extreme-Scale Scientific Insight, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b12985"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2008.02.007","article-title":"Segmentation of cDNA microarray images by kernel density estimation","volume":"41","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Inf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pereira, O., Torres, E., Garc\u00e9, Y., and Rodr\u00edguez, R. (2017, January 17\u201320). Edge detection based on kernel density estimation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Image Processing, Computer Vision, and Pattern Recognition (IPCV), The Steering Committee of The World Congress in Computer Science, Computer, Engineering and Applied Computing WorldComp, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2016.06.022","article-title":"Learning arbitrary-shape object detector from bounding-box annotation by searching region-graph","volume":"87","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.11.005","article-title":"Efficient adaptive density estimation per image pixel for the task of background subtraction","volume":"27","author":"Zivkovic","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2017.09.009","article-title":"Real-time nonparametric background subtraction with tracking-based foreground update","volume":"74","author":"Cuevas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Hyndman, R.L., Zhang, X., and King, M.L. (2004). Bandwidth selection for multivariate kernel density estimation using MCMC. Econometric Society 2004 Australasian Meetings, Econometric Society."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csda.2005.06.019","article-title":"A Bayesian approach to bandwidth selection for multivariate kernel density estimation","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Stat. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spl.2012.07.020","article-title":"Normal reference bandwidths for the general order, multivariate kernel density derivative estimator","volume":"82","author":"Henderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stat. Probab. Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF918.1","article-title":"The use of a modified Ebert\u2013McBride technique to evaluate mesoscale model QPF as a function of convective system morphology during IHOP 2002","volume":"21","author":"Grams","year":"2006","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1978","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1995)034<1978:CCOTDS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Climatological characterization of three-dimensional storm structure from operational radar and rain gauge data","volume":"34","author":"Steiner","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1775-2009","article-title":"Dealing with uncertainty: An analysis of the severe weather events over Italy in 2006","volume":"9","author":"Molini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.741","article-title":"Classifying severe rainfall events over Italy by hydrometeorological and dynamical criteria","volume":"137","author":"Molini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1109\/34.765655","article-title":"Using spin images for efficient object recognition in cluttered 3D scenes","volume":"21","author":"Johnson","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0224-4","article-title":"Empirical-statistical downscaling and error correction of regional climate models and its impact on the climate change signal","volume":"112","author":"Gobiet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Brown, B.G., Bullock, Y.R., Davis, C.A., Gotway, J.H., Chapman, M.B., Takacs, A., Gillel, E., Manning, K., and Mahoney, J.L. (2004, January 4\u20138). New verification approaches for convective weather forecasts. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Aviation, Range, and Aerospace, Hyannis, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-009-0134-9","article-title":"Statistical bias correction for daily precipitation in regional climate models over Europe","volume":"99","author":"Piani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, R., Maggioni, V., Vila, D., and Morales, C. (2016). Characteristics and diurnal cycle of GPM rainfall estimates over the central Amazon region. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8070544"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.12.008","article-title":"Evaluation of GPM Day-1 IMERG and TMPA Version-7 legacy products over Mainland China at multiple spatiotemporal scales","volume":"533","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/21\/3538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:30:09Z","timestamp":1760178609000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/21\/3538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,28]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12213538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12213538","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,28]]}}}