{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T14:53:26Z","timestamp":1782917606509,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]],"date-time":"2020-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Central Pollution Control Board, India","award":["MoU"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MoU"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a major criteria pollutant affecting the environment, health and climate. In India where ground-based measurements of PM2.5 is scarce, it is important to have a long-term database at a high spatial resolution for an efficient air quality management plan. Here we develop and present a high-resolution (1-km) ambient PM2.5 database spanning two decades (2000\u20132019) for India. We convert aerosol optical depth from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) retrieved by Multiangle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) algorithm to surface PM2.5 using a dynamic scaling factor from Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications Version 2 (MERRA-2) data. The satellite-derived daily (24-h average) and annual PM2.5 show a R2 of 0.8 and 0.97 and root mean square error of 25.7 and 7.2 \u03bcg\/m3, respectively against surface measurements from the Central Pollution Control Board India network. Population-weighted 20-year averaged PM2.5 over India is 57.3 \u03bcg\/m3 (5\u201395 percentile ranges: 16.8\u201386.9) with a larger increase observed in the present decade (2010\u20132019) than in the previous decade (2000 to 2009). Poor air quality across the urban\u2013rural transact suggests that this is a regional scale problem, a fact that is often neglected. The database is freely disseminated through a web portal \u2018satellite-based application for air quality monitoring and management at a national scale\u2019 (SAANS) for air quality management, epidemiological research and mass awareness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233872","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]],"date-time":"2020-11-26T09:04:15Z","timestamp":1606381455000},"page":"3872","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":113,"title":["A Satellite-Based High-Resolution (1-km) Ambient PM2.5 Database for India over Two Decades (2000\u20132019): Applications for Air Quality Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0604-0869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sagnik","family":"Dey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Research on Clean Air, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bhavesh","family":"Purohit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Palak","family":"Balyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1311-0917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuldeep","family":"Dixit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kunal","family":"Bali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alok","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fahad","family":"Imam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sourangsu","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5282-0156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dilip","family":"Ganguly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Prashant","family":"Gargava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V. K.","family":"Shukla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi 110000, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2437","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32804-0","article-title":"Nations within a nation: Variations in epidemiological transition across the states of India, 1990\u20132016 in the Global Burden of Disease Study","volume":"390","author":"Dandona","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6","article-title":"Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.08.021","article-title":"Decadal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the Indian Subcontinent using remote sensing data","volume":"127","author":"Dey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(18)30261-4","article-title":"The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: The Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"3","author":"Balakrishnan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.03.004","article-title":"Cause-specific premature death from ambient PM2.5 exposure in India: Estimate adjusted for baseline mortality","volume":"91","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.8b00360","article-title":"Ambient PM2.5 reduces global and regional life expectancy","volume":"5","author":"Apte","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"100040","article-title":"no one knows which city has the highest concentration fine particulate matter","volume":"3","author":"Martin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-018-0629-6","article-title":"Monitoring particulate matter in India: Recent trends and future outlook","volume":"12","author":"Pant","year":"2019","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2019.116940","article-title":"Examination of monitoring approaches for ambient air pollution: A case study for India","volume":"216","author":"Brauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.06.013","article-title":"Air pollution health research priorities for India: Perspectives of the Indo-U.S. communities of researchers","volume":"119","author":"Gordon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2017.10.0425","article-title":"18-year ambient PM2.5 exposure and nightlight rends in Indian cities: Vulnerability assessment","volume":"18","author":"Pal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8756","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b00318","article-title":"Seasonal transition in PM10 exposure and associated all-cause mortality risks in India","volume":"52","author":"Pande","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2019.02.029","article-title":"Tracking ambient PM2.5 buildup in Delhi national capital region during the dry season over 15 years using a high-resolution (1-km) satellite aerosol dataset","volume":"204","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7891","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c01769","article-title":"Estimation of high-resolution PM2.5 over the Indo-Gangetic Plain by fusion of satellite data, meteorology, and land use variables","volume":"54","author":"Mhawish","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yazdi, M.D., Kuang, Z., Dimakopouou, K., Baratt, B., Suel, E., Amini, H., Lyapustin, A., Katsouyanni, K., and Schwartz, J. (2020). Predicting fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the Greater London area: An ensemble approach using machine learning methods. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12060914"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901623","article-title":"Global estimates of ambient particulate matter concentrations from satellite-based aerosol optical depth: Development and application","volume":"118","author":"Martin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3762","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b05833","article-title":"Global estimates of fine particulate matter using a combined geophysical-statistical method with information from satellites, models, and monitors","volume":"50","author":"Martin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408646","article-title":"Use of satellite observations for long-term exposure assessment of global concentrations of fine particulate matter","volume":"123","author":"Martin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7879","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c01764","article-title":"Global estimates and long-term trends of fine particulate matter concentrations (1998\u20132018)","volume":"54","author":"Hammar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9069","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b02864","article-title":"Data integration for the assessment of population exposure to ambient air pollution for global burden of disease assessment","volume":"52","author":"Shaddick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5741","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-5741-2018","article-title":"MODIS collection 6 MAIAC algorithm","volume":"11","author":"Lyapustin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.01.033","article-title":"Comparison and evaluation of MODIS Multi-angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) aerosol product over South Asia","volume":"224","author":"Mhawish","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00031-5","article-title":"AERONET\u2014A federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization","volume":"66","author":"Holben","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2014.07.014","article-title":"A new hybrid spatio-temporal model for estimating daily multi-year PM2.5 concentrations across northeastern USA using high resolution aerosol optical depth data","volume":"95","author":"Kloog","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6851","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0613.1","article-title":"The MERRA-2 aerosol reanalysis, 1980-onward, Part II: Evaluation and case studies","volume":"30","author":"Buchard","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1021\/es202857w","article-title":"Temporal trends in atmospheric PM2.5, PM10, elemental carbon, organic carbon, water-soluble organic carbon, and optical properties: Impact of biomass burning emissions in the Indo-Gangetic Plain","volume":"46","author":"Ram","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2019.12.0615","article-title":"Evaluation of PM2.5 surface concentrations simulated by NASA\u2019s MERRA Version 2 aerosol reanalysis over India and its relation to air quality index","volume":"20","author":"Navinya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, May 01). Central Pollution Control Board, Government of India Website. Available online: www.cpcb.nic.in."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6843","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-6843-2019","article-title":"Submicron aerosol composition in the world\u2019 most polluted megacity: The Delhi aerosol supersite study","volume":"19","author":"Gani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Dijkstra, L., and Poelmann, H. (2020, May 01). A harmonized definition of cities and rural areas: The new degree of urbanization. Eur. Comm. Urban Reg. Pol., Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/regional_policy\/sources\/docgener\/work\/2014_01_new_urban.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"D15204","article-title":"A climatology of aerosol optical and microphysical properties over the Indian Subcontinent from 9 years (2000\u20132008) of Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) data","volume":"115","author":"Dey","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2015.01.0018","article-title":"Satellite-based estimates of aerosol washout and recovery over India during monsoon","volume":"16","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10529","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-10529-2015","article-title":"Evaluating the climate and air quality impacts of short-lived pollutants","volume":"15","author":"Stohl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.05.025","article-title":"Projection of near-future anthropogenic PM2.5 over India using statistical approach","volume":"186","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0219-0","article-title":"Air quality in megacity Delhi affected by countryside biomass burning","volume":"2","author":"Bikkina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16062","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-16338-w","article-title":"Declining pre-monsoon dust loading over South Asia: Signature of a changing regional climate","volume":"7","author":"Pandey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-015-0616-3","article-title":"Regional biomass burning trends in India: Analysis of satellite fire data","volume":"124","author":"Sahu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Earth Sys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17409","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53630-3","article-title":"Recent increase in winter hazy days over Central India and the Arabian Sea","volume":"9","author":"Thomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1206340","article-title":"Household cooking with solid fuels contributes to ambient PM2.5 air pollution and the burden of disease","volume":"122","author":"Chafe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15371","article-title":"The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale","volume":"525","author":"Lelieveld","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-02986-7","article-title":"residential energy use emissions dominate health impacts from exposure to ambient particulate matter in India","volume":"9","author":"Conibear","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"GBD MAPS Working Group 2018 (2018). Burden of disease attributable to major air pollution sources in India. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA, USA. Spec. Rep., 21, Available online: https:\/\/www.healtheffects.org\/publication\/gbd-air-pollution-india."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10711","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1900888116","article-title":"Indian ambient air quality standard is achievable by completely mitigating emissions from household sources","volume":"116","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.07.085","article-title":"Expected health benefits from mitigation of emissions from major anthropogenic PM2.5 sources in India: Statistics at state level","volume":"242","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0501-7","article-title":"The association of early-life exposure to ambient PM2.5 and later-childhood age-for-height in India: An observational study","volume":"18","author":"Spears","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.11.050","article-title":"Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and birthweight in a rural-urban, mother-child cohort in Tamil Nadu, India","volume":"161","author":"Balakrishnan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/23\/3872\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:37:31Z","timestamp":1760179051000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/23\/3872"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12233872"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12233872","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]]}}}