{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T06:15:21Z","timestamp":1784873721791,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41671444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41671444"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41871359"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41871359"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52078349"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52078349"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Abundant data sets produced from long-term series of high-resolution remote sensing data have made it possible to explore urban issues across different spatiotemporal scales. Based on a 40-year impervious area data set released by Tsinghua University, a method was developed to map the speed and acceleration of urban built-up areas. With the mapping results of the two indices, we characterised the spatiotemporal dynamics of built-up area expansion and captured different types of expansion. Combined with socioeconomic data, we examined the temporal changes and spatial heterogeneity of driving forces with an ordinary least square (OLS) model and a panel data model, as well as exploring the environmental effects of the expansion. Our results reveal that China has experienced drastic urban expansion over the last four decades. Among all cities, megacities and large cities in eastern China, as well as megacities in central and northeast China have experienced the most dramatic urban expansion. A growing number of cities are categorised as thriving, which means that they have both high expansion speed and acceleration. The overall driving force of urban expansion has significantly increased. More specifically, it was associated with population increase in the early stages; however, since 2000, it has been substantially associated with increases in GDP and fixed asset investments. The major driving factors also differ between regions and urban sizes. Urban expansion is identified as being closely associated with environmental deterioration; thus, speed and acceleration should be included as key indicators in exploring the environmental effects of urban expansion. In summary, the results of the presented case study, based on a data set of China, indicate that speed and acceleration are useful in analysing the driving forces of urban expansion and its environmental effects, and may generate more interest in related research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233929","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T10:26:12Z","timestamp":1606731972000},"page":"3929","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Analysing the Driving Forces and Environmental Effects of Urban Expansion by Mapping the Speed and Acceleration of Built-Up Areas in China between 1978 and 2017"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Lan","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yinghui","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinhu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seto, K.C., Fragkias, M., G\u00fcneralp, B., and Reilly, M.K. (2011). A Meta-Analysis of Global Urban Land Expansion. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023777"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.04.032","article-title":"Mapping urbanization dynamics at regional and global scales using multi-temporal DMSP\/OLS nighttime light data","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111510","article-title":"Annual maps of global artificial impervious area (GAIA) between 1985 and 2018","volume":"236","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"European Environment Agency, and European Commission (2006). Urban Sprawl in Europe: The Ignored Challenge, European Environment Agency."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16083","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1211658109","article-title":"Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools","volume":"109","author":"Seto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progress.2011.04.001","article-title":"The dimensions of global urban expansion: Estimates and projections for all countries, 2000\u20132050","volume":"75","author":"Angel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Plan."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044015","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab6669","article-title":"Trends in urban land expansion, density, and land transitions from 1970 to 2010: A global synthesis","volume":"15","author":"Reba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2004.03.003","article-title":"Urban land expansion and arable land loss in China\u2014A case study of Beijing\u2013Tianjin\u2013Hebei region","volume":"22","author":"Tan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2017.02.001","article-title":"A global analysis of land take in cropland areas and production displacement from urbanization","volume":"43","author":"Eitelberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S7","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(19)30150-0","article-title":"Biodiversity, land use change, and human health in northeastern Madagascar: An interdisciplinary study","volume":"3","author":"Kramer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.6877","article-title":"Unhealthy Landscapes: Policy Recommendations on Land Use Change and Infectious Disease Emergence","volume":"112","author":"Patz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-018-4189-0","article-title":"Evapotranspiration-dominated biogeophysical warming effect of urbanization in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China","volume":"52","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901879","article-title":"Urban Form and Extreme Heat Events: Are Sprawling Cities More Vulnerable to Climate Change Than Compact Cities?","volume":"118","author":"Stone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114037","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab4b71","article-title":"Projecting global urban land expansion and heat island intensification through 2050","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134635","article-title":"Impact of urban expansion on the air pollution landscape: A case study of Hanoi, Vietnam","volume":"702","author":"Hien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110100173","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Variation of PM2.5 Concentrations and Their Relationship with Geographic and Socioeconomic Factors in China","volume":"11","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2017). Landscapes in Transition: An Account of 25 Years of Land Cover Change in Europe, Publications Office."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2017.07.003","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of land development in transitional China","volume":"67","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Lo Seen, D., and Zhang, Z. (2016, January 10\u201315). Temporal-spatial patterns of land use change in coastal China from 1980\u2019s to 2010. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7730183"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2015.10.001","article-title":"The rapid and massive urban and industrial land expansions in China between 1990 and 2010: A CLUD-based analysis of their trajectories, patterns, and drivers","volume":"145","author":"Kuang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-018-1490-0","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns and characteristics of land-use change in China during 2010\u20132015","volume":"28","author":"Ning","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, M., He, C., Liu, Z., and Dou, Y. (2016). How Did Urban Land Expand in China between 1992 and 2015? A Multi-Scale Landscape Analysis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0154839"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2018.07.003","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns of urban sprawl and its relationship with economic development in China during 1990\u20132010","volume":"79","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-016-1339-3","article-title":"Urban expansion in China and its spatial-temporal differences over the past four decades","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2017.1395090","article-title":"Urban expansion patterns of 291 Chinese cities, 1990\u20132015","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70201721","article-title":"Dynamics of Urbanization Levels in China from 1992 to 2012: Perspective from DMSP\/OLS Nighttime Light Data","volume":"7","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.03.003","article-title":"Spatiotemporally enhancing time-series DMSP\/OLS nighttime light imagery for assessing large-scale urban dynamics","volume":"128","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012063","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/569\/1\/012063","article-title":"Mapping urbanization dynamic of mainland china using dmsp\/ols night time light data","volume":"569","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2016.04.011","article-title":"Mapping and evaluation the process, pattern and potential of urban growth in China","volume":"71","author":"Yi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8768","DOI":"10.3390\/su7078768","article-title":"Urban Growth and Rural Transition in China Based on DMSP\/OLS Nighttime Light Data","volume":"7","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.135828","article-title":"A comparative analysis of urban impervious surface and green space and their dynamics among 318 different size cities in China in the past 25 years","volume":"706","author":"Dou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2018.03.016","article-title":"Identifying the relationship between urban land expansion and human activities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China","volume":"94","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2019.04.024","article-title":"40-Year (1978\u20132017) human settlement changes in China reflected by impervious surfaces from satellite remote sensing","volume":"64","author":"Gong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"094044","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab9be3","article-title":"Mapping global urban boundaries from the global artificial impervious area (GAIA) data","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2020, September 11). China\u2019s State Council Notice on the Adjustment of Standards for the Division of Urban Scale, Available online: http:\/\/www.gov.cn\/zhengce\/content\/2014-11\/20\/content_9225.htm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Xie, H. (2019). Interactive Relationship among Urban Expansion, Economic Development, and Population Growth since the Reform and Opening up in China: An Analysis Based on a Vector Error Correction Model. Land, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/land8100153"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2018.02.001","article-title":"Suburban industrial land development in transitional China: Spatial restructuring and determinants","volume":"78","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2880","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098013513649","article-title":"Land use change and economic growth in urban China: A structural equation analysis","volume":"51","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-015-1186-7","article-title":"Spatial differences and driving forces of land urbanization in China","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2018.11.019","article-title":"Exploring the factors affecting regional land development patterns at different developmental stages: Evidence from 289 Chinese cities","volume":"91","author":"Wanfu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Ding, S., Cao, W., Fan, D., and Tang, B. (2020). Research on Network Patterns and Influencing Factors of Population Flow and Migration in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration, China. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12176803"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, P., and Li, L. (2017). Mapping Urban Expansion and Exploring Its Driving Forces in the City of Praia, Cape Verde, from 1969 to 2015. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9081434"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10281","DOI":"10.3390\/su70810281","article-title":"Urban Land Expansion and Structural Change in the Yangtze River Delta, China","volume":"7","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2018.04.003","article-title":"Will the land supply structure affect the urban expansion form?","volume":"75","author":"Xiong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2016.04.012","article-title":"How does sprawl differ across urban built-up land types in China? A spatial-temporal analysis of the Beijing metropolitan area using granted land parcel data","volume":"58","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-014-0540-9","article-title":"Escaping the resource curse in China","volume":"44","author":"Cao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2020.104754","article-title":"Public policy change and its impact on urban expansion: An evaluation of 265 cities in China","volume":"97","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2018.03.004","article-title":"The varying driving forces of urban expansion in China: Insights from a spatial-temporal analysis","volume":"174","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-020-1095-2","article-title":"Spatial-temporal Dynamics and Driving Forces of Land Development Intensity in the Western China from 2000 to 2015","volume":"30","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Ren, C., Zhang, B., Wang, Z., and Liu, M. (2018). Quantifying Urban Land Sprawl and its Driving Forces in Northeast China from 1990 to 2015. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10010188"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0436-6","article-title":"Research gaps in knowledge of the impact of urban growth on biodiversity","volume":"3","author":"McDonald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05018017","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000476","article-title":"Urban Land Expansion and Air Pollution: Evidence from China","volume":"144","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Urban Plan. Dev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9142","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b02549","article-title":"Relationships between Changes in Urban Characteristics and Air Quality in East Asia from 2000 to 2010","volume":"50","author":"Larkin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02918748","article-title":"Impact of land use changes on surface warming in China","volume":"22","author":"Jingyong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2015.05.013","article-title":"Quantifying the effects of settlement size on urban heat islands in fairly uniform geographic areas","volume":"49","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1890\/1540-9295(2006)004[0341:ECORUE]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Ecological consequences of rapid urban expansion: Shanghai, China","volume":"4","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-010-9326-6","article-title":"The impact of urban land expansion on soil quality in rapidly urbanizing regions in China: Kunshan as a case study","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mou, Y., Song, Y., Xu, Q., He, Q., and Hu, A. (2018). Influence of Urban-Growth Pattern on Air Quality in China: A Study of 338 Cities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15091805"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/23\/3929\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:39:40Z","timestamp":1760179180000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/12\/23\/3929"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs12233929"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs12233929","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]}}}