{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T21:46:14Z","timestamp":1781127974491,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,10]],"date-time":"2020-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Information on spatial, temporal, and depth variability of soil salinity at field and landscape scales is important for a variety of agronomic and environment concerns including irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas. However, challenges remain in characterizing and monitoring soil secondary salinity as it can largely be impacted by managements including irrigation and mulching in addition to natural factors. The objective of this study is to evaluate apparent electrical conductivity (ECa)-directed soil sampling as a basis for monitoring management-induced spatio-temporal change in soil salinity in three dimensions. A field experiment was conducted on an 18-ha saline-sodic field from Alar\u2019s Agricultural Science and Technology Park, China between March, and November 2018. Soil ECa was measured using an electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor for four times over the growing season and soil core samples were collected from 18 locations (each time) selected using EMI survey data as a-priori information. A multi-variate regression-based predictive relationship between ECa and laboratory-measured electrical conductivity (ECe) was used to predict EC with confidence (R2 between 0.82 and 0.99). A three-dimensional inverse distance weighing (3D-IDW) interpolation clearly showed a strong variability in space and time and with depths within the study field which were mainly attributed to the human management factors including irrigation, mulching, and uncovering of soils and natural factors including air temperature, evaporation, and groundwater level. This study lays a foundation of characterizing secondary salinity at a field scale for precision and sustainable management of agricultural lands in arid and semi-arid areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12244043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,10]],"date-time":"2020-12-10T08:59:34Z","timestamp":1607590774000},"page":"4043","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Field-Scale Characterization of Spatio-Temporal Variability of Soil Salinity in Three Dimensions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2609-5805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongyi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Resource Management, School of Tourism and Urban Management, Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, Nanchang 330013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0429-9209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinlu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Resource Management, School of Tourism and Urban Management, Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, Nanchang 330013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9353-0307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bifeng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Resources, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"},{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Recherche en Science du Sol, INRAE, 45075 Orl\u00e9ans, France"},{"name":"Sciences de la Terre et de l\u2019Univers, Orl\u00e9ans University, 45067 Orl\u00e9ans, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0801-3546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asim","family":"Biswas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingsong","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Resources, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiyang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Science, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Resources, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Science, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Present Scenario of Global Salt Affected Soils, its Management and Importance of Salinity Research","volume":"1","author":"Hossain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. 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