{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T21:23:09Z","timestamp":1775856189758,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,24]],"date-time":"2021-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611446400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A comprehensive study on the Indian summer monsoonal rainfall (ISMR) is performed in the light of decadal changes in the continuous rainfall events and the number of rainy days using 68 years (1951\u20132018) of gridded rain gauge data. Non-parametric Mann\u2013Kendall\u2019s test is applied on total rainfall amount, the number of rainy days, number of continuous rainfall events, and rainfall magnitude to find trends over different climatic zones of India for the two periods, 1951\u20131984 and 1985\u20132018. Our results found a decreasing trend for more than 4-days of continuous rainfall events during the recent 34 years (1985\u20132018) compared to 1951\u20131984. The rate of increase\/decrease in extreme\/continuous rainfall events does not follow a similar trend in number of continuous rainfall events and magnitude. Moreover, the rainfall is shifted towards a lesser number of continuous rainfall days with higher magnitudes during 1985\u20132018. During the crop\u2019s sow season (i.e., the first 45 days from the onset date of Indian monsoon), the total number of rainy days decreased by a half day during the last 34 years. Over the Central and North East regions of India, the number of rainfall days decreased by ~0.1 days\/yr and ~0.3 days\/yr, respectively, during 1985\u20132018. Overall, the decreasing trends in continuous rainfall days may escalate water scarcity and lead to lower soil moisture over rain-fed irrigated land. Additionally, an upsurge in heavy rainfall episodes will lead to an unexpected floods. On a daily scale, rainfall correlates with soil moisture and evaporation up to 0.87 over various land cover and land use regions of India. Continuous light-moderate rainfall seems to be a controlling factor for replenishing soil moisture in upper levels. A change in rainfall characteristics may force the monsoon-fed rice cultivation period to adopt changing rainfall patterns.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13030398","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,25]],"date-time":"2021-01-25T09:59:40Z","timestamp":1611568780000},"page":"398","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Proportional Trends of Continuous Rainfall in Indian Summer Monsoon"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5278-5821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vinay","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Texas A&amp;M University, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4594-2099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K.","family":"Sunilkumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Ministry of Earth Sciences, Pune 411008, India"}]},{"given":"Tushar","family":"Sinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Texas A&amp;M University, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"4887","article-title":"The Indian Monsoon, GDP and Agriculture","volume":"41","author":"Gadgil","year":"2006","journal-title":"Econ. Political Wkly."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021199714487","article-title":"Hydrometeorological aspects of floods in India","volume":"28","author":"Dhar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2174\/1874213001811010047","article-title":"Greenhouse gas emission, rainfall and crop production over North-Western India","volume":"11","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Ecol. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chauhan, B., Jabran, K., and Mahajan, G. (2017). Rice Production in India. Rice Production Worldwide, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47516-5"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-009-0047-2","article-title":"Application of multi-model ensemble techniques for real time district-level rainfall forecasts in short range time scale over Indian region","volume":"106","author":"RoyBhowmik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Metorol. Atmos. Phy."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7154","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8154","article-title":"Rethinking Indian monsoon rainfall prediction in the context of recent global warming","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Parthasarathy, B., Munot, A.A., and Kothawale, D.R. (1995). Monthly Monthly and Seasonal Rainfall Series for All India, Homogeneous Regions and Meteorological Subdivisions: 1871\u20131994, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology. Research Report No. RR-065."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"101","article-title":"Prediction of Indian summer monsoon: Status, Problems and prospects","volume":"81","author":"Rajeevan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Monsoon of India: Some aspects of the \u2018break\u2019 in the Indian southwest monsoon during July and August","volume":"1","author":"Ramamurthy","year":"1969","journal-title":"Forecast. Man."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1132027","article-title":"Increasing trend of extreme rain events over India in a warming environment","volume":"314","author":"Goswami","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7423","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8423","article-title":"Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient","volume":"6","author":"Roxy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-016-3183-7","article-title":"March of buoyancy elements during extreme rainfall over India","volume":"48","author":"Krishnamurti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Sunilkumar, K., Kumar, V., Martins, S.V., and Pandithurai, G. (2020). Performance of precipitation climate indices over Monsoon Asia (MA) and remotely associated teleconnections using APHRODITE. Remote Sens., (under review)."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"D24104","article-title":"Dynamics of \u2018\u2018internal\u2019\u2019 interannual variability of the Indian summer monsoonin a GCM","volume":"110","author":"Goswami","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dash, S.K., Kulkarni, M.A., Mohanty, U.C., and Prasad, K. (2009). Changes in the characteristics of rain events in India. J. Geophys. Res., 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD010572"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-010-0974-0","article-title":"The once and future pulse of Indian monsoonal climate","volume":"36","author":"Krishnakumar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00744-9","article-title":"A threefold rise in widespread extreme rain events over central India","volume":"8","author":"Roxy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2012.10.010","article-title":"Statistical analysis of long term spatial and temporal trends of precipitation during 1901\u20132002 at Madhya Pradesh","volume":"122","author":"Duhan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894313","DOI":"10.1100\/2012\/894313","article-title":"Relationships between rainy days, mean daily intensity, and seasonal rainfall over the Koyna catchment during 1961\u20132005","volume":"2012","author":"Nandargi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. World. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.54302\/mausam.v65i1.851","article-title":"Development of a new high spatial resolution (0.25\u00b0\u00d70.25\u00b0) long period (1901\u20132010) daily gridded rainfall data set over India and its comparison with existing data sets over the region","volume":"65","author":"Pai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mausam"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00142477","article-title":"Fluctuations in All-India summer monsoon rainfall during 1871-1978","volume":"6","author":"Mooley","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.04.034","article-title":"Detecting change-point, trend, and seasonality in satellite time series data to track abrupt changes and nonlinear dynamics: A Bayesian ensemble algorithm","volume":"232","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J Royal Met. Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1998)015<0809:TTRMMT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) sensor package","volume":"15","author":"Kummerow","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8987","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023437","article-title":"Comprehensive evaluation of multisatellite precipitation estimates over India using gridded rainfall data","volume":"120","author":"Sunilkumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JHM934.1","article-title":"Time series analysis of soil freeze-thaw processes in Indiana","volume":"9","author":"Sinha","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydromet."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-1719-2016","article-title":"Assessment of small-scale variability of rainfall and multi-satellite precipitation estimates using measurements from a dense rain gauge network in Southeast India","volume":"20","author":"Sunilkumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4344","DOI":"10.20546\/ijcmas.2018.707.506","article-title":"Rainfall Variability Estimation for Western Rajasthan, India","volume":"7","author":"Yadav","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Rainwater harvesting in India: Some critical issues for basin planning and research","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Land Use Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1","article-title":"Trends in the rainfall pattern over India","volume":"2","author":"Guhathakurta","year":"2006","journal-title":"NCC Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49710042411","article-title":"Secular variations of regional rainfall over India","volume":"100","author":"Parthasarathy","year":"1974","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1131152","article-title":"Unraveling the mystery of Indian monsoon failure during El-Ni\u00f1o","volume":"314","author":"Krishnakumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"229","article-title":"Trends and Periodicities in Rainfall at West Coast Stations in India","volume":"38","author":"Koteswaram","year":"1969","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.54302\/mausam.v36i4.2060","article-title":"Time series analysis of annual rainfall over India","volume":"36","author":"Alvi","year":"1985","journal-title":"Mausam"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2005.11.060","article-title":"Hydrological characteristics of the Gangotri glacier, central Himalayas, India","volume":"327","author":"Singh","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2003)016<1739:SRITTA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Stratiform Rain in the Tropics as Seen by the TRMM Precipitation Radar","volume":"16","author":"Schumacher","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-012-1638-z","article-title":"Impacts of enhanced CCN on the organization of convection and recent reduced counts of Monsoon Depressions","volume":"41","author":"Krishnamurti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17966","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17966-y","article-title":"Precipitation variability increases in a warmer climate","volume":"7","author":"Pendergrass","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1452","article-title":"A decade of weather extremes","volume":"2","author":"Coumou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e571","DOI":"10.1002\/wcc.571","article-title":"Indian summer monsoon: Extreme events, historical changes, and role of anthropogenic forcings","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"WIREs Clim. Chnag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4548","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4651","article-title":"Changes in climate extremes over major river basins of India","volume":"36","author":"Deshpande","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4737","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI2896.1","article-title":"Changing frequency and intensity of rainfall extremes over India from 1951 to 2003","volume":"22","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1327","article-title":"Lack of uniform trends but increasing spatial variability in observed Indian rainfall extremes","volume":"2","author":"Ghosh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.11.071","article-title":"Modeling non-stationarity in intensity, duration and frequency of extreme rainfall over India","volume":"521","author":"Mondal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.617","article-title":"Mesoscale modeling for the rapid movement of monsoonal isochrones","volume":"17","author":"Kumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.3354\/cr00785","article-title":"Effects of rainfall variation on rice production in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin","volume":"38","author":"Asada","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-014-0444-x","article-title":"Impact of monsoon rainfall on the total foodgrain yield over India","volume":"123","author":"Prasanna","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"26","article-title":"A Prediction on Rice Production in India through Multivariate Regression Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Jena","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Bus. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1999)080<2043:AAFLSH>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An agenda for land surface hydrology research and a call for the second international hydrological decade","volume":"80","author":"Entekhabi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1641\/B580908","article-title":"Consequences of more extreme precipitation regimes for terrestrial ecosystems","volume":"58","author":"Knapp","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioscience"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2010.481373","article-title":"Analysis of long-term rainfall trends in India","volume":"55","author":"Kumar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5989","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6989","article-title":"Climate variation explains a third of global crop yield variability","volume":"6","author":"Ray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0208-4","article-title":"Climate change, the monsoon, and rice yield in India","volume":"111","author":"Auffhammer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/3\/398\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:14:42Z","timestamp":1760159682000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/3\/398"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,24]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13030398"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13030398","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,24]]}}}