{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T12:44:08Z","timestamp":1780317848081,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]],"date-time":"2021-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Special Fund for Research on National Major Research Instruments","award":["31727901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31727901"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Entomological radars are important for scientific research of insect migration and early warning of migratory pests. However, insects are hard to detect because of their tiny size and highly maneuvering trajectory. Generalized Radon\u2013Fourier transform (GRFT) has been proposed for effective weak maneuvering target detection by long-time coherent detection via jointly motion parameter search, but the heavy computational burden makes it impractical in real signal processing. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) has been used to achieve GRFT detection by fast heuristic parameter search, but it suffers from obvious detection probability loss and is only suitable for single target detection. In this paper, we convert the realization of GRFT into a multimodal optimization problem for insect multi-target detection. A novel niching method without radius parameter is proposed to detect unevenly distributed insect targets. Species reset and boundary constraint strategy are used to improve the detection performance. Simulation analyses of detection performance and computational cost are given to prove the effectiveness of the proposed method. Furthermore, real observation data acquired from a Ku-band entomological radar is used to test this method. The results show that it has better performance on detected target amount and track continuity in insect multi-target detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040594","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]],"date-time":"2021-02-10T04:33:46Z","timestamp":1612931626000},"page":"594","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Fast Implementation of Insect Multi-Target Detection Based on Multimodal Optimization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Rui","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan 250300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiming","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiming","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiong","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Advanced Technology Research Institute, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jinan 250300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianran","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radar Research Lab, School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12407","article-title":"Long-range seasonal migration in insects: Mechanisms, evolutionary drivers and ecological consequences","volume":"18","author":"Chapman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2019.2955575","article-title":"Entomological Radar Overview: System and Signal Processing","volume":"35","author":"Long","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drake, V.A., and Reynolds, D.R. (2012). Radar Entomology: Observing Insect Flight and Migration, CABI.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781845935566.0000"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6212","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2904869","article-title":"Insect biological parameter estimation based on the invariant target parameters of the scattering matrix","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109306","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-018-9484-2","article-title":"Insect flight speed estimation analysis based on a full-polarization radar","volume":"61","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. China Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"Identification of migratory insects from their physical features using a decision-tree support vector machine and its application to radar entomology","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-019-2800-0","article-title":"Deep-learning-based extraction of the animal migration patterns from weather radar images","volume":"63","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. China Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2018.1519283","article-title":"Ascent and descent rates of high-flying insect migrants determined with a non-coherent vertical-beam entomological radar","volume":"40","author":"Drake","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/7.250410","article-title":"Search radar detection and track with the Hough transform. I. System concept","volume":"30","author":"Carlson","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1109\/7.543865","article-title":"Peformance of dynamic programming techniques for track-before-detect","volume":"32","author":"Tonissen","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2007.914879","article-title":"SNR walls for signal detection","volume":"2","author":"Tandra","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal. Process."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Skolnik, M.I. (1980). Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Zeng, T., Long, T., and Wang, Z. (2006, January 16\u201319). Range migration compensation and Doppler ambiguity resolution by Keystone transform. Proceedings of the 2006 CIE International Conference on Radar, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICR.2006.343404"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1675","article-title":"Weak target detection based on keystone transform","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Electron. Sin."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2010.0304","article-title":"Imaging moving targets using the second-order keystone transform","volume":"5","author":"Kirkland","year":"2011","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4474","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2015.2437844","article-title":"Coherent integration algorithm for a maneuvering target with high-order range migration","volume":"63","author":"Kong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal. Process."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2011.5751251","article-title":"Radon-fourier transform for radar target detection, I: Generalized doppler filter bank","volume":"47","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2011.6034645","article-title":"Radon-Fourier transform for radar target detection (II): Blind speed sidelobe suppression","volume":"47","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2012.6178044","article-title":"Radon-Fourier transform for radar target detection (III): Optimality and fast implementations","volume":"48","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6190","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2012.2217137","article-title":"Radar maneuvering target motion estimation based on generalized Radon-Fourier transform","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1049\/el.2012.2255","article-title":"Fast implementation of generalised Radon-Fourier transform for manoeuvring radar target detection","volume":"48","author":"Qian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, L., Xu, J., Sun, W., and Peng, Y. (2012, January 27\u201329). Efficient approach of generalized RFT based on PSO. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer and Information Technology, Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIT.2012.113"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4315616","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4315616","article-title":"A fast algorithm of generalized Radon-Fourier transform for weak maneuvering target detection","volume":"2016","author":"Xia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Eberhart, R., and Kennedy, J. (1995, January 4\u20136). A new optimizer using particle swarm theory. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Micro Machine and Human Science, MHS\u201995, Nagoya, Japan."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008202821328","article-title":"Differential evolution\u2014A simple and efficient heuristic for global optimization over continuous spaces","volume":"11","author":"Storn","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Glob. Optim."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, Z., and Pan, J. (2016, January 24\u201329). QUasi-affine TRansformation Evolutionary (QUATRE) algorithm: A parameter-reduced differential evolution algorithm for optimization problems. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation (CEC), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.2016.7744308"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"854","article-title":"Cat Swarm Optimization","volume":"Volume 4099","author":"Chu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 9th Pacific Rim International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Pricai 2006: Trends in Artificial Intelligence, Guilin, China, 7-11 August 2006"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2005.859468","article-title":"Locating and tracking multiple dynamic optima by a particle swarm model using speciation","volume":"10","author":"Parrott","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2016.2638437","article-title":"Seeking multiple solutions: An updated survey on niching methods and their applications","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2014.2306677","article-title":"History-based topological speciation for multimodal optimization","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Shi, Y., and Eberhart, R. (1998, January 4\u20139). A modified particle swarm optimizer. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation Proceedings. IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence (Cat. No. 98TH8360), Anchorage, AK, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s10898-003-6454-x","article-title":"A study of global optimization using particle swarms","volume":"31","author":"Schutte","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Glob. Optim."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, C., Kong, S., Wang, R., Zhang, F., and Wang, L. (2020). Insect Mass Estimation Based on Radar Cross Section Parameters and Support Vector Regression Algorithm. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12111903"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Micro-Doppler measurement of insect wing-beat frequencies with W-band coherent radar","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/594\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:21:01Z","timestamp":1760160061000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/594"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13040594"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13040594","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]}}}