{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T04:54:22Z","timestamp":1774673662313,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,8]],"date-time":"2021-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612742400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS grant","award":["18H00763 (2018-20)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18H00763 (2018-20)"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004731","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LQ20D010008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LQ20D010008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004731","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As one of the most populated metropolitan areas in the world, the Tokyo Metropolitan Area (TMA) has experienced severe climatic modifications and pressure due to densified human activities and urban expansion. The surface urban heat island (SUHI) phenomenon particularly constitutes a significant threat to human comfort and geo-environmental health in TMA. This study aimed to profile the spatial interconnections between land surface temperature (LST) and land cover\/use in TMA from 2001 to 2015 using multi-source spatial data. To this end, the thermal gradients between the urban and non-urban fabric areas in TMA were examined by joint analysis of land cover\/use and LST. The spatiotemporal aggregation patterns, variations, and movement trajectories of SUHI intensity in TMA were identified and delineated. The spatial relationship between SUHI and the potential driving forces in TMA was clarified using geographically weighted regression (GWR) analysis. The results show that the thermal environment of TMA exhibited a polynucleated spatial structure with multiple thermal island cores. Overall, the magnitude and extent of SUHI in TMA increased and expanded from 2001 to 2015. During that time, SUHIs clustered in the compact residential quarters and redevelopment\/renovation areas rather than downtown. The GWR models showed better performance than ordinary least squares (OLS) models, with Adj R2 &gt; 0.9, indicating that the magnitude of SUHI significantly depended on its neighboring geographical setting, including land cover composition and configuration, population size, and terrain. We suggest that UHI mitigation in Tokyo should be focused on alleviating the magnitude of persistent thermal cores and controlling unstable SUHI occurrence based on partitioned or location-specific landscape design. This study\u2019s findings have immense implications for SUHI mitigation in metropolitan areas situated in bay regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040610","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]],"date-time":"2021-02-10T04:33:46Z","timestamp":1612931626000},"page":"610","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Spatial Interconnections of Land Surface Temperatures with Land Cover\/Use: A Case Study of Tokyo"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Fei","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2444-133X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Earth Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Yuhangtang Road No.2318, Hangzhou 311121, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4397-6882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuji","family":"Murayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Prieur-Richard, A.H., Walsh, M.B., Craig, M.L., Melamed, M., Colbert, M., Pathak, S., Connors, X., Bai, A., Barau, H., and Bulkeley, H. (2019). Global Research and Action Agenda on Cities and Climate Change Science-Full Version, WCRP Publication No.13. Available online: https:\/\/www.wcrp-climate.org\/WCRP-publications\/2019\/GRAA-Cities-and-Climate-Change-Science-Full.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations (UN) (2020, December 15). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available online: https:\/\/unfccc.int\/resource\/docs\/convkp\/conveng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, Y.R., Sokona, E., Farahani, S., Kadner, K., Seyboth, A., Adler, I., Baum, S., Brunner, P., and Eickemeier, B. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2012.07.005","article-title":"A survey of urban climate change experiments in 100 cities","volume":"23","author":"Bulkeley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.05.057","article-title":"The city and urban heat islands: A review of strategies to mitigate adverse effects","volume":"25","author":"Gago","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W.D., Romero-Lankao, P., Mehrotra, S., Dhakal, S., and Ibrahim, S.A. (2011). Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511783142"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00079-8","article-title":"Thermal remote sensing of urban climates","volume":"86","author":"Voogt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.03.007","article-title":"Thermal infrared remote sensing for urban climate and environmental studies: Methods, applications, and trends","volume":"64","author":"Weng","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"The energetic basis of the urban heat island","volume":"108","author":"Oke","year":"1982","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"30","article-title":"Urban heat island effect: A systematic review of spatio-temporal factors, data, methods, and mitigation measures","volume":"67","author":"Deilami","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/S1001-0742(08)60019-4","article-title":"A review on the generation, determination and mitigation of urban heat island","volume":"20","author":"Leung","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"67","article-title":"Urban heat island: Causes, effects and mitigation measures\u2014A review","volume":"3","author":"Nuruzzaman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Monit. Anal."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, (UN DESA) (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, UN DESA."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, (UN DESA) (2018). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, UN DESA."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerden, T. (2018). The adoption of the Kyoto protocol of the United Nations framework convention on climate change. Contrib. Contemp. Hist., 58.","DOI":"10.51663\/pnz.58.2.07"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Statistic Bureau of Japan (2020, December 15). Statistical Handbook of Japan, Available online: https:\/\/www.stat.go.jp\/english\/data\/handbook\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"The Bureau of Environment, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG) (2020, December 15). Creating a Sustainable City-Tokyo\u2019s Environmental Policy, Available online: https:\/\/www.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/english\/about\/environmental_policy\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Centre for Regional Research, Hosei University (2020, December 15). Report on Local Climate Change Adaptation in Japan. Available online: https:\/\/si-cat.ws.hosei.ac.jp\/en\/paper2016en_web.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Association of International Research Initiatives for Environmental Studies (AIRIES) (2017). Perspectives on climate change research in Japan after the Paris Agreement: International negotiations, technologies and countermeasures, plus adaptation. Glob. Environ. Res., 21, 1\u201364."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Statistics Division at Bureau of General Affairs, TMG (2020, December 15). Tokyo Statistical Yearbook, Available online: https:\/\/www.toukei.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/tnenkan\/tn-eindex.html."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Statistic Bureau of Japan (2020, December 15). Japan Statistical Yearbook, Available online: https:\/\/www.stat.go.jp\/english\/data\/nenkan\/."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"The Bureau of Environment, TMG (2020, December 15). Environmental Outlook Tokyo, Available online: https:\/\/www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/en\/about_us\/videos_documents\/documents_1.files\/kankyo4774.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"The Bureau of Environment, TMG (2020, December 15). Urban Heat Island, Available online: https:\/\/www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/en\/climate\/heat_island.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Case, M., and Tidwell, A. (2008). Nippon Changes: Climate Impacts Threatening Japan Today and Tomorrow, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) International."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) (2020, December 15). Climate Change Monitoring Report, Available online: https:\/\/www.jma.go.jp\/jma\/en\/NMHS\/indexe_ccmr.html."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ministry of the Environment (MOE), Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) (2020, December 15). Climate Change and Its Impacts in Japan. Synthesis Report on Observations, Projections, and Impact Assessments of Climate Change Climate, Available online: https:\/\/www.env.go.jp\/earth\/tekiou\/pamph2018_full_Eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"The Bureau of Environment, TMG (2020, December 15). Guidelines for Heat Island Control Measures, Available online: https:\/\/www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/en\/about_us\/videos_documents\/documents_1.files\/heat_island.pdf."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ministry of the Environment (MOE), Japan (2020, December 15). Annual Report on Environmental Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.env.go.jp\/en\/statistics\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Inter-Ministry Coordination Committee to Mitigate Urban Heat Island (2020, December 15). Outline of the Policy Framework to Reduce Urban Heat Island Effects, Available online: https:\/\/www.env.go.jp\/en\/air\/heat\/heatisland.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1689","article-title":"Recent progress on urban climate study in Japan","volume":"53","author":"Kusaka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geogr. Rev. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, D., Xiao, J., Bonafoni, S., Berger, C., Deilami, K., Zhou, Y., Frolking, S., Yao, R., Qiao, Z., and Sobrino, J.A. (2019). Satellite remote sensing of surface urban heat islands: Progress, challenges, and perspectives. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010048"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.10.195","article-title":"Effects of landscape composition and pattern on land surface temperature: An urban heat island study in the megacities of Southeast Asia","volume":"577","author":"Estoque","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, C., Myint, S.W., Kaplan, S., Middel, A., Zheng, B., Rahman, A., Huang, H.P., Brazel, A., and Blumberg, D.G. (2017). Understanding the impact of urbanization on surface urban heat Islands-A longitudinal analysis of the oasis effect in subtropical desert cities. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070672"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2017.11.023","article-title":"Analyzing long-term spatio-temporal patterns of land surface temperature in response to rapid urbanization in the megacity of Tehran","volume":"71","author":"Tayyebi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Land Policy"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Zhang, Y., Pengwang, C., and Gao, W. (2017). Evaluation of urbanization dynamics and its impacts on surface heat islands: A case study of Beijing, China. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9050453"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keeratikasikorn, C., and Bonafoni, S. (2018). Urban heat island analysis over the land use zoning plan of Bangkok by means of Landsat 8 imagery. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030440"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simwanda, M., Ranagalage, M., Estoque, R.C., and Murayama, Y. (2019). Spatial analysis of surface urban heat islands in four rapidly growing African cities. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11141645"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dissanayake, D., Morimoto, T., Murayama, Y., Ranagalage, M., and Handayani, H.H. (2018). Impact of urban surface characteristics and socio-economic variables on the spatial variation of land surface temperature in Lagos City, Nigeria. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11010025"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dissanayake, D.M.S.L.B., Morimoto, T., Murayama, Y., and Ranagalage, M. (2019). Impact of landscape structure on the variation of land surface temperature in Sub-Saharan Region: A case study of Addis Ababa using Landsat data (1986\u20132016). Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11082257"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, H., and Estoque, R.C. (2020). Detecting cooling effect of landscape from composition and configuration: An urban heat island study on Hangzhou. Urban For. Urban Green., 53.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2020.126719"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deilami, K., Kamruzzaman, M., and Hayes, J.F. (2016). Correlation or causality between land cover patterns and the urban heat island effect? Evidence from Brisbane, Australia. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090716"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F., Sun, W., Yang, G., and Weng, Q. (2019). Investigating spatiotemporal patterns of surface urban heat islands in the Hangzhou Metropolitan Area, China, 2000. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11131553"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Zhang, X., Murayama, Y., and Morimoto, T. (2020). Impacts of land cover\/use on the urban thermal environment: A comparative study of 10 megacities in China. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12020307"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102432","article-title":"Geo-simulation of land use\/cover scenarios and impacts on land surface temperature in Sapporo, Japan","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102381","article-title":"Ordinary least squares modelling of urban heat island intensity based on landscape composition and configuration: A comparative study among three megacities along the Yangtze River","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Tsunematsu, N., Yokoyama, H., Honjo, T., Ichihashi, A., Ando, H., Matsumoto, F., Seto, Y., Shigyo, N., and Games, P. (2015, January 20\u201324). Impacts of Urban Heat Island Mitigation Strategies on Surface Temperatures in Downtown Tokyo. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Urban Climate Jointly with 12th Symposium on the Urban Environment, Toulouse, France. Available online: http:\/\/www.meteo.fr\/icuc9\/LongAbstracts\/ccma7-2-1471106_a.pdf."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2016.03.002","article-title":"Relationship between land use variations and spatiotemporal changes in amounts of thermal infrared energy emitted from urban surfaces in downtown Tokyo on hot summer days","volume":"17","author":"Tsunematsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Urban. Clim."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102060","article-title":"Evaluation of urban heat islands using local climate zones and the influence of sea-land breeze","volume":"55","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2015.04.001","article-title":"Recent challenges in modeling of urban heat island","volume":"19","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.03.095","article-title":"The urban heat island effect, its causes, and mitigation, with reference to the thermal properties of asphalt concrete","volume":"197","author":"Mohajerani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"European Space Agency (ESA) (2020, December 15). Land Cover CCI Product User Guide Version 2 Tech. Rep., Available online: maps.elie.ucl.ac.be\/CCI\/viewer\/download\/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Lamarche, C., Bontemps, S., Verhegghen, A., Radoux, J., Vanbogaert, E., Kalogirou, V., Seifert, F.M., Arino, O., and Defourny, P. (2020, December 15). Characterizing the Surface Dynamics for Land Cover Mapping: Current Achievements of the ESA CCI Land Cover, Available online: https:\/\/ftp.space.dtu.dk\/pub\/Ioana\/papers\/s333_4lama.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., and Ene, E. (2020, December 15). FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Available online: http:\/\/www.umass.edu\/landeco\/research\/fragstats\/fragstats.html."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Liu, F., and Murayama, Y. (2018). Landsat evaluation of land cover composition and its impacts on urban thermal environment: A case study on the fast-growing Shanghai Metropolitan Area. Geoinfor Geostat Overv., 2."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9829","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6109829","article-title":"Land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat 8 TIRS-comparison between radiative transfer equation-based method, split window algorithm and single channel method","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.003","article-title":"Land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat TM 5","volume":"90","author":"Sobrino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"McCarville, D., Buenemann, M., Bleiweiss, M., and Barsi, J. (2011, January 1\u20135). Atmospheric correction of Landsat thermal infrared data: A calculator based on North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) data. Proceedings of the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Conference, Milwaukee, WI, USA."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Barsi, A.J., Barker, L.J., and Schott, R.J. (2003, January 21\u201325). An atmospheric Correction Parameter Calculator for a Single Thermal Band Earth-Sensing Instrument. Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"58820E","article-title":"Validation of a web-based atmospheric correction tool for single thermal band instruments","volume":"5882","author":"Barsi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Earth Obs. Syst."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"68","article-title":"A sub-pixel analysis of urbanization effect on land surface temperature and its interplay with impervious surface and vegetation coverage in Indianapolis, United States","volume":"10","author":"Weng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2017.02.027","article-title":"Modelling the urban heat island effect of smart growth policy scenarios in Brisbane","volume":"64","author":"Deilami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Land Policy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.01.001","article-title":"Characterizing the relationship between land use land cover change and land surface temperature","volume":"124","author":"Tran","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x","article-title":"The analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics","volume":"24","author":"Getis","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x","article-title":"Local spatial autocorrelation statistics: Distributional issues and an application","volume":"27","author":"Ord","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1980.tb00040.x","article-title":"Towards a theory of spatial statistics","volume":"12","author":"Griffith","year":"1980","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffith, D.A. (1984). Theory of Spatial Statistics. Spatial Statistics and Models, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-3048-8_1"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1086\/214027","article-title":"Measuring geographic concentration by means of the standard deviational ellipse","volume":"32","author":"Lefever","year":"1926","journal-title":"Am. J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Shi, W., and Miao, Z. (2015). Confidence analysis of standard deviational ellipse and its extension into higher dimensional Euclidean space. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118537"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.01.155","article-title":"Measuring spatio-temporal dynamics of impervious surface in Guangzhou, China, from 1988 to 2015, using time-series Landsat imagery","volume":"627","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2008.11.004","article-title":"The socio-spatial dynamics of extreme urban heat events: The case of heat-related deaths in Philadelphia","volume":"29","author":"Johnson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-011-0517-6","article-title":"Local regression models for spatial interpolation of urban heat island-an example from Wroc\u0142aw, SW Poland","volume":"108","author":"Szymanowski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Clim."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"102131","article-title":"Spatially non-stationary effect of underlying driving factors on surface urban heat islands in global major cities","volume":"90","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noi, P.T., Degener, J., and Kappas, M. (2017). Comparison of multiple linear regression, cubist regression, and random forest algorithms to estimate daily air surface temperature from dynamic combinations of MODIS LST data. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9050398"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2014.07.001","article-title":"Geographically weighted regression of the urban heat island of a small city","volume":"53","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.2307\/3545210","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity against heteroscedasticity: An ecological paradigm versus a statistical concept","volume":"66","author":"Dutilleul","year":"1993","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, C., Jensen, J., Weng, Q., and Weaver, R. (2018). A geographically weighted regression analysis of the underlying factors related to the surface urban heat island phenomenon. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091428"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Fan, C., Zhao, Q., and Myint, S.W. (2020). A geographically weighted regression approach to understanding urbanization impacts on urban warming and cooling: A case study of Las Vegas. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12020222"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.350","article-title":"Effects of urban form on the urban heat island effect based on spatial regression model","volume":"634","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.4","article-title":"WorldPop, open data for spatial demography","volume":"4","author":"Tatem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.1","article-title":"High resolution global gridded data for use in population studies","volume":"4","author":"Lloyd","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stevens, F.R., Gaughan, A.E., Linard, C., and Tatem, A.J. (2015). Disaggregating census data for population mapping using random forests with remotely-sensed and ancillary data. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107042"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183","article-title":"The shuttle radar topography mission","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, X., and Peng, Y. (2016). Scale effects of the relationships between urban heat islands and impact factors based on a geographically-weighted regression model. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090760"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49708435910","article-title":"On the frequency of snowfall in Metropolitan England","volume":"84","author":"Manley","year":"1958","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"104","article-title":"The urban heat island in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in the last 30 years using remote sensing data","volume":"64","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2013.07.021","article-title":"Analysis of land use\/land cover change, population shift, and their effects on spatiotemporal patterns of urban heat islands in metropolitan Shanghai, China","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2011.11.018","article-title":"Evaluation of the impact of the urban heat island on residential and commercial energy consumption in Tokyo","volume":"37","author":"Hirano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4072033","article-title":"The impacts of rapid urbanization on the thermal environment: A remote sensing study of Guangzhou, South China","volume":"4","author":"Xiong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2007.02.006","article-title":"The influence of land use on the urban heat island in Singapore","volume":"31","author":"Wong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2003.12.016","article-title":"Daytime urban heat island effect in high-rise and high-density residential developments in Hong Kong","volume":"36","author":"Giridharan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3071535","article-title":"Urban heat island analysis using the landsat TM data and ASTER Data: A case study in Hong Kong","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"The Bureau of Urban Development, TMG (2020, December 15). Outline of the City Planning, Available online: https:\/\/www.toshiseibi.metro.tokyo.lg.jp\/eng\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"65","article-title":"Measures to mitigate urban heat islands","volume":"18","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q. Rev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj1965.78.4_405","article-title":"The effects of land-use alteration on the sea breeze and daytime heat island in the Tokyo metropolitan area","volume":"78","author":"Kusaka","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Akashi, T. (2008, January 5). Creating the \u201cWind Paths\u201d in the City to Mitigate Urban Heat Island Effects\u2014A Case Study in Central District of Tokyo. Proceedings of the CIB-W101 (Spatial Planning and Infrastructure Development) Annual Meeting, Dublin, Ireland. Available online: https:\/\/www.kenken.go.jp\/japanese\/contents\/cib\/w101_old\/pdf\/04.pdf."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.2480\/agrmet.D-18-00026","article-title":"Analysis of urban heat island movement and intensity in Tokyo Metropolitan Area by AMeDAS data","volume":"75","author":"Honjo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2018.04.010","article-title":"Analyzing horizontal and vertical urban expansions in three East Asian megacities with the SS-coMCRF model","volume":"177","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban. Plan."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, R., Derdouri, A., and Murayama, Y. (2018). Spatiotemporal simulation of future land use\/cover change scenarios in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10062056"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2019.05.007","article-title":"Fukuoka: Adapting to climate change through urban green space and the built environment?","volume":"93","author":"Mabon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2016.09.003","article-title":"Urban heat island mitigation strategies: A state-of-the-art review on Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Hong Kong","volume":"62","author":"Aflaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cities"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/610\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:21:36Z","timestamp":1760160096000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/610"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,8]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13040610"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13040610","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,8]]}}}