{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T15:07:38Z","timestamp":1789139258781,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]],"date-time":"2021-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atmospheric cold front propagation across the northern Gulf of Mexico is characterized by elevated surface wind velocities and a ~10\u201315 \u00b0C drop in surface air temperatures. These meteorological conditions result in significant heat energy losses from the surface ocean to the overlying atmosphere. These seasonally recurring cold-air outbreak events may penetrate the southern portion of the West Florida continental shelf and initiate turbulent and convective overturn of the water column. Examination of true color images derived from ocean-viewing, satellite-based radiometer data reveals coincident and substantial surface water discolorations that are optically similar to smaller-scale \u201cwhiting events,\u201d despite the regional-scale extent of the observed phenomenon (&gt;25,000 km2). Coupled air\u2013sea numerical simulations suggest the surface water discoloration occurs and is sustained where the entire water column is dynamically unstable. The simulation results indicate significant density (\u03c3t) inversions between the surface and bottom waters. Thus, the combined numerical model and remote sensing analysis suggest that convective turbulence may be contributing to the sustained ventilation of bottom waters containing a high concentration of suspended particulates. High-temporal resolution true color images rendered from the GOES-R Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) data appear to support the surface water discoloration\u2019s turbulent-driven nature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040619","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]],"date-time":"2021-02-10T04:33:46Z","timestamp":1612931626000},"page":"619","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["On the Potential Optical Signature of Convective Turbulence over the West Florida Shelf"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0829-6294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason K.","family":"Jolliff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sherwin","family":"Ladner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Travis A.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark David","family":"Lewis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sean C.","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard L.","family":"Crout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ewa","family":"Jarosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Lawson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1974)004<0467:EOACAO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Effects of a Cold-Air Outbreak on Shelf Waters of the Gulf of Mexico","volume":"4","author":"Nowlin","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"325","article-title":"Sea surface temperature and mixed layer depth changes due to cold-air outbreak in the Gulf of Mexico","volume":"23","author":"Villanueva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmosfera"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(85)90037-9","article-title":"Satellite Observations of the Circulation East of the Mississippi Delta: Cold-Air Outbreak Conditions","volume":"18","author":"Schroeder","year":"1985","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(88)90052-0","article-title":"Physical and biological responses to the passage of a winter storm in the coastal and inner shelf waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico","volume":"8","author":"Dagg","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"317","article-title":"The response of the Gulf of Mexico to wind and heat flux forcing: What has been learned in recent years?","volume":"27","author":"Morey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmosfera"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.655","article-title":"Sea surface temperature influence on a winter cold front position and propagation: Air-sea interactions of the \u2018Nortes\u2019 winds in the Gulf of Mexico","volume":"17","author":"Passalacqua","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1976)104<0709:AEOTFA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An examination of the frequency and mean conditions surrounding frontal incursions into the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea","volume":"104","author":"DiMego","year":"1976","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"19","article-title":"Cold surge activity over the Gulf of Mexico in a warmer climate","volume":"2","author":"Caetano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hunniford, R. (2011). The Impact of Marine Cold-Air Outbreaks on the Rate of Oceanic Heat Storage in the Gulf of Mexico. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Florida State University]. Available online: http:\/\/purl.flvc.org\/fsu\/fd\/FSU_migr_etd-3400."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4523","DOI":"10.1029\/JC083iC09p04523","article-title":"Winter cycle of sea surface thermal patterns, northeastern Gulf of Mexico","volume":"83","author":"Huh","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(87)90014-8","article-title":"Response of subtropical shallow-water environments to cold-air outbreak events: Satellite radiometry and heat flux modeling","volume":"7","author":"Walker","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Steele, J.H. (2001). Upper Ocean Mixing Processes. Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1986)016<1777:CDTMIT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Convectively driven turbulent mixing in the upper ocean","volume":"16","author":"Shay","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6273","DOI":"10.1029\/JC094iC05p06273","article-title":"Similarity scaling of viscous and thermal dissipation in a convecting surface boundary layer","volume":"94","author":"Lombardo","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112002001015","article-title":"Turbulent convection driven by surface cooling in shallow water","volume":"464","author":"Zikanov","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s13146-014-0212-7","article-title":"A review of whiting formation in the Bahamas and new models","volume":"29","author":"Larson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Carbonates Evaporites"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2819","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(03)00103-0","article-title":"Caco3 precipitation kinetics in waters from the great Bahama bank: Implications for the relationship between bank hydrochemistry and whitings","volume":"67","author":"Morse","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.5194\/os-9-477-2013","article-title":"MERIS-based ocean colour classification with the discrete Forel-Ule scale","volume":"9","author":"Wernand","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Mobley, C.D. (1994). Light and Water, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Jerlov, N.G. (1976). Marine Optics, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]. Elsevier Oceanography Series 14."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandermeulen, R.A., Mannino, A., Craig, S.E., and Werdell, P.J. (2020). 150 shades of green: Using the full spectrum of remote sensing reflectance to elucidate color shifts in the ocean. Remote Sens. Environ., 247.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111900"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8390","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL078228","article-title":"The Optical Signature of a Bottom Boundary Layer Ventilation Event in the Northern Gulf of Mexico\u2019s Hypoxic Zone","volume":"45","author":"Jolliff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jolliff, K.J., Lewis, D.M., Ladner, S., and Crout, L.R. (2019). Observing the Ocean Submesoscale with Enhanced-Color GOES-ABI Visible Band Data. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183900"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ladner, S., Crout, R., Lawson, A., Martinolich, P.M., Bowers, J., and Arnone, R.A. (2016). Validation Test Report for the Automated Optical Processing System (AOPS) Version 16. U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Technical Memorandum, United States Naval Research Laboratory. NRL\/MR\/7330-16-9697;."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mobley, C.D., Werdell, P.J., Franz, B.A., Ahmad, Z., and Bailey, S. (2020, December 22). Atmospheric Correction for Satellite Ocean Color Radiometry: A Tutorial and Documentation of the Algorithms Used by the NASA Ocean Biology Processing Group NASA\/TM-2016-217551, GSFC-E-DAA-TN35509, Available online: https:\/\/oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov\/docs\/technical\/NASA-TM-2016-217551.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Carter, E.C., Ohno, Y., Pointer, M.R., Robertson, A.R., Seve, R., Schanda, J.D., and Witt, K. (2004). CIE 15, International Commisssioin on Illumination, Technical Report: Colorimetry, International Commission on Illumination. [3rd ed.]. 10 CFR 430 Subpart B, App. R. 4.1.1."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Lindon, J.C. (2017). Colorimetry, Methods. Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"110140B","article-title":"Delineation of suspended solids in river outflow from Hurricane Florence using GOES-16 ABI data","volume":"Volume 11014","author":"Lewis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Sensing and Monitoring XI"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1997)125<1414:TNRLSC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Naval Research Laboratory\u2019s Coupled Ocean\/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS)","volume":"125","author":"Hodur","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1680.1","article-title":"Sea surface height predictions from the Global Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM) during 1998\u20132001","volume":"21","author":"Barron","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2012.02.003","article-title":"The response of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas to a summer Mistral event: A coupled atmosphere\u2013ocean approach","volume":"48","author":"Small","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ocean. Model."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Martin, P.J. (2000). Description of the Navy Coastal Ocean. Model. 1.0, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. United States Naval Research Laboratory Memorandum Report 7322\u201400-9962."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosmond, T.E., Teixeira, J., Peng, M., Hogan, T.F., and Pauley, R. (2002). Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System (NOGAPS): Forcing for Ocean Models. Oceanography, 15.","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2002.40"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3579","DOI":"10.1175\/2009MWR3119.1","article-title":"Effect of two-way air-sea coupling in high and low wind speed regimes","volume":"138","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allard, R., Smith, T.A., Jensen, T.G., Chu, P.Y., Roger, E., and Campbell, T.J. (2012). Validation Test. Report for the Coupled Ocean\/Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) Version 5.0: Ocean\/Wave Component Validation, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. Naval Research Laboratory Memorandum Report 7320\u201412-9423.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA577284"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/98RG02739","article-title":"Open-ocean convection: Observations, theory, and models","volume":"37","author":"Marshall","year":"1999","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.04.021","article-title":"Chlorophyll algorithms for ocean color sensors-OC4, OC5 & OC6","volume":"229","author":"Werdell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4850","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.004850","article-title":"Diffuse reflectance of oceanic waters III. Implication of bidirectionality for the remote sensing problem","volume":"35","author":"Morel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1989.34.8.1484","article-title":"Dependence of the diffuse reflectance of natural waters on the sun angle","volume":"34","author":"Gordon","year":"1989","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balch, W.M., Gordon, H.R., Bowler, B.C., Drapeau, D.T., and Booth, E.S. (2005). Calcium carbonate measurements in the surface global ocean based on Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JC002560"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.01.023","article-title":"How optically diverse is the coastal ocean?","volume":"160","author":"Vantrepotte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Lee, Z.-P. (2006). Remote Sensing of Inherent Optical Properties: Fundamentals, Tests of Algorithms, and Applications, IOCCG. Reports of the International Ocean-Colour Coordinating Group, No. 5."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10674","article-title":"Optical types of inland and coastal waters","volume":"63","author":"Spyrakos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jolliff, J.K., Ladner, S., Lewis, M.D., Jarosz, E., Lawson, T.A., Smith, T.A., Penko, A., and McCarthy, S. (2018, January 25). Hyperspectral determination of ocean color as an ocean monitoring tool: Example applications in the Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the SPIE 10631, Ocean Sensing and Monitoring X, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2307253"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.07.001","article-title":"An improved in-situ bio-optical data set for ocean color algorithm development and satellite data product validation","volume":"98","author":"Werdell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13237","DOI":"10.1029\/95JC00458","article-title":"The lognormal distribution as a model for bio-optical variability in the sea","volume":"100","author":"Campbell","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5755","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.41.005755","article-title":"Deriving inherent optical properties from water color: A multiband quasi-analytical algorithm for optically deep waters","volume":"41","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2017.07.017","article-title":"Optical and biochemical properties of a southwest Florida whiting event","volume":"196","author":"Long","year":"2017","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conmy, R.N., Coble, P.G., Cannizzaro, J.P., and Heil, C.A. (2009). Influence of extreme storm events on West Florida Shelf CDOM distributions. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci., 114.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JG000981"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Sa, E.J., Joshi, I.D., Liu, B., Ko, D.S., Osburn, C.L., and Bianchi, T.S. (2019). Biogeochemical Response of Apalachicola Bay and the Shelf Waters to Hurricane Michael Using Ocean Color Semi-Analytic\/Inversion and Hydrodynamic Models. Front. Mar. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00523"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hallock, P., Robbins, L.L., Larson, R., Beck, T., Schwing, P., Martinez-Colon, M., and Gooch, B. (2010). West Florida Shelf: A Natural Laboratory for the Study of Ocean Acidification, USGS. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010-1134.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20101134"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, C.H. (2017). Sediments of the Gulf of Mexico. Habitats and Biota of the Gulf of Mexico: Before the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Volume 1: Water Quality, Sediments, Sediment Contaminants, Oil and Gas Seeps, Coastal Habitats, Offshore Plankton and Benthos, and Shellfish, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3447-8_1"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GB005614","article-title":"Vertical Distributions of Coccolithophores, PIC, POC, Biogenic Silica, and Chlorophyll a Throughout the Global Ocean","volume":"32","author":"Balch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huguenard, K.D., Bogucki, D.J., Ortiz-Suslow, D.G., and MacMahan, J.H. (2020). Nearshore response to cold air outbreaks in the Gulf of Mexico. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 235.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2020.106604"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-4343(01)00085-1","article-title":"West Florida Shelf circulation and temperature budget for the 1999 spring transtition","volume":"22","author":"He","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsu175","article-title":"Has Sverdrup\u2019s critical depth hypothesis been tested? Mixed layers vs. turbulent layers","volume":"72","author":"Franks","year":"2015","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2012.12.006","article-title":"Cold front induced changes on the Florida panhandle shelf during October 2008","volume":"54","author":"Kamykowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/619\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:21:57Z","timestamp":1760160117000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/619"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13040619"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13040619","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,9]]}}}