{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T09:38:25Z","timestamp":1785490705196,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]],"date-time":"2021-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41574018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41574018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41974013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41974013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydroclimatic extremes such as droughts and floods triggered by human-induced climate change are causing severe damage in the Nile River Basin (NRB). These hydroclimatic extremes are not well studied in a holistic approach in NRB. In this study, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission and its Follow on mission (GRACE-FO) derived indices and other standardized hydroclimatic indices are computed for developing monitoring and evaluation methods of flood and drought. We evaluated extreme hydroclimatic conditions by using GRACE\/GRACE-FO derived indices such as water storage deficits Index (WSDI); and standardized hydroclimatic indices (i.e., Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and others). This study showed that during 1950\u20132019, eight major floods and ten droughts events were identified based on standardized-indices and GRACE\/GRACE-FO-derived indices. Standardized-indices mostly underestimated the drought and flood severity level compared to GRACE\/GRACE-FO derived indices. Among standardized indices PDSI show highest correlation (r2 = 0.72) with WSDI. GRACE-\/GRACE-FO-derived indices can capture all major flood and drought events; hence, it may be an ideal substitute for data-scarce hydro-meteorological sites. Therefore, the proposed framework can serve as a useful tool for flood and drought monitoring and a better understanding of extreme hydroclimatic conditions in NRB and other similar climatic regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040651","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T18:45:00Z","timestamp":1613155500000},"page":"651","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Hydroclimatic Extremes Evaluation Using GRACE\/GRACE-FO and Multidecadal Climatic Variables over the Nile River Basin"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2034-1959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zemede M.","family":"Nigatu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"},{"name":"Geospatial Information Science (GIS) department, WGCFNR, Hawassa University, Hawassa PO Box 5, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongming","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"},{"name":"State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Spatial Information, Technology for High-Speed Railway Safety, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"You","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"},{"name":"State-Province Joint Engineering Laboratory of Spatial Information, Technology for High-Speed Railway Safety, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4724-9367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Assefa M.","family":"Melesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environment, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M., Abtew, W., and Setegn, S.G. (2014). Climate Teleconnections, and Water Management. Nile River Basin: Ecohydrological Challenges, Climate Change, and Hydropolitics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-02720-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2017.04.007","article-title":"Improving Irrigation Efficiency will be Insufficient to Meet Future Water Demand in the Nile Basin","volume":"12","author":"Multsch","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-018-9465-3","article-title":"Quantifying Modern Recharge and Depletion Rates of the Nubian Aquifer in Egypt","volume":"39","author":"Ahmed","year":"2018","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.04.004","article-title":"Runoff Sensitivity to Climate Change in the Nile River Basin","volume":"561","author":"Hasan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3273","article-title":"Climate Change Enhances Interannual Variability of the Nile River Flow","volume":"7","author":"Siam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012","article-title":"A Review of Drought Concepts","volume":"391","author":"Mishra","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"245","article-title":"A Comprehensive Drought Monitoring Method Integrating MODIS and TRMM Data","volume":"23","author":"Du","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50188","article-title":"Climate Extremes Indices in the CMIP5 Multimodel Ensemble: Part 2. Future Climate Projections","volume":"118","author":"Sillmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0047.1","article-title":"Characterizing Drought in India Using GRACE Observations of Terrestrial Water Storage Deficit","volume":"18","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2117","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0182.1","article-title":"A Global Gridded Dataset of GRACE Drought Severity Index for 2002\u201314: Comparison with PDSI and SPEI and a Case Study of the Australia Millennium Drought","volume":"18","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"McKee, T.B., Doesken, N.J., and Kleist, J. (1993, January 17\u201322). The Relationship of Drought Frequency and Duration to Time Scales. Proceedings of the Eighth Conference on Applied Climatology, American Meteorological Society, Anaheim, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0076.1","article-title":"Commonly Used Drought Indices as Indicators of Soil Moisture in China","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI2909.1","article-title":"A Multiscalar Drought Index Sensitive to Global Warming: The Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index","volume":"23","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Palmer, W.C. (1965). Meteorological Droughts."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2335","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2004)017<2335:ASPDSI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Self-Calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index","volume":"17","author":"Wells","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-12-0160.1","article-title":"A Nonparametric Multivariate Multi-Index Drought Monitoring Framework","volume":"15","author":"Hao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL088306","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL088306","article-title":"Extending the Global Mass Change Data Record: GRACE Follow-On Instrument and Science Data Performance","volume":"47","author":"Landerer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.2514\/1.A34326","article-title":"GRACE-FO: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On mission","volume":"56","author":"Kornfeld","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Spacecr. Rocket."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-015-9338-y","article-title":"What Can Be Expected from the GRACE-FO Laser Ranging Interferometer for Earth Science Applications?","volume":"37","author":"Flechtner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nigatu, Z.M., Fan, D., and You, W. (2021). GRACE Products and Land Surface Models for Estimating the Changes in Key Water Storage Components in the Nile River Basin. Adv. Space Res.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-34754\/v1"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landerer, F.W., and Swenson, S.C. (2012). Accuracy of Scaled GRACE Terrestrial Water Storage Estimates. Water Resour. Res., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011453"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9412","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR019494","article-title":"Global Evaluation of New GRACE Mascon Products for Hydrologic Applications","volume":"52","author":"Scanlon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124849","article-title":"Utilizing GRACE-Based Groundwater Drought Index for Drought Characterization and Teleconnection Factors Analysis in the North China Plain","volume":"585","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013007","article-title":"High-Resolution CSR GRACE RL05 Mascons","volume":"121","author":"Save","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL059323","article-title":"A GRACE-Based Water Storage Deficit Approach for Hydrological Drought Characterization","volume":"41","author":"Thomas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2019.02.053","article-title":"Utilizing Combined Deviations of Precipitation and GRACE-Based Terrestrial Water Storage as a Metric for Drought Characterization: A Case Study over Major Indian River Basins","volume":"572","author":"Sinha","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.292","article-title":"Drought Evaluation Using the GRACE Terrestrial Water Storage Deficit over the Yangtze River Basin, China","volume":"634","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.108057","article-title":"GRACE Satellite-Based Drought Index Indicating Increased Impact of Drought over Major Basins in China during 2002\u20132017","volume":"291","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.09.027","article-title":"Evaluation of a Model-Based Groundwater Drought Indicator in the Conterminous U.S","volume":"526","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4533","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-4533-2017","article-title":"Recent Changes in Terrestrial Water Storage in the Upper Nile Basin: An Evaluation of Commonly Used Gridded GRACE Products","volume":"21","author":"Shamsudduha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3651","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7522","article-title":"Climate Change, Land-Cover Dynamics and Ecohydrology of the Nile River Basin","volume":"23","author":"Melesse","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3738","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7476","article-title":"Spatial Delineation of Soil Erosion Vulnerability in the Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia","volume":"23","author":"Setegn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.2010.00431.x","article-title":"Modeling of Sediment Yield From Anjeni-Gauged Watershed, Ethiopia Using SWAT Model1","volume":"46","author":"Setegn","year":"2010","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3653","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7367","article-title":"El Ni\u00f1o Southern Oscillation Link to the Blue Nile River Basin Hydrology","volume":"23","author":"Abtew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7312","article-title":"Low and High Flow Analyses and Wavelet Application for Characterization of the Blue Nile River System","volume":"24","author":"Melesse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M., Abtew, W., and Senay, G.B. (2019). Regional Flood Frequency Curves for Remote Rural Areas of the Nile River Basin: The Case of Baro-Akobo Drainage Basin, Ethiopia. Extreme Hydrology and Climate Variability: Monitoring, Modelling, Adaptation, and Mitigation, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4038","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9205","article-title":"Modelling the Rainfall-Runoff Process of the Mara River Basin Using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool","volume":"26","author":"Dessu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.4236\/ajcc.2016.51005","article-title":"Hydrological Impact Assessment of Climate Change on Lake Tana\u2019s Water Balance, Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Nigatu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M. (2011). Hydrological Variability and Climate of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin. Nile River Basin: Hydrology, Climate, and Water Use, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-0689-7"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M., Abtew, W., and Senay, G. (2019). Historical Flood Events and Hydrological Extremes in Ethiopia. Extreme Hydrology and Climate Variability: Monitoring, Modelling, Adaptation, and Mitigation, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2973","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9434","article-title":"Impact and Uncertainties of Climate Change on the Hydrology of the Mara River Basin, Kenya\/Tanzania","volume":"27","author":"Dessu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9291","article-title":"Stage Level, Volume and Time-Frequency Information Content of Lake Tana Using Stochastic and Wavelet Analysis Methods","volume":"27","author":"Chebud","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7457","article-title":"SWAT Model Application and Prediction Uncertainty Analysis in the Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia","volume":"24","author":"Setegn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3534","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7416","article-title":"Modelling Lake Stage and Water Balance of Lake Tana, Ethiopia","volume":"23","author":"Chebud","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M. (2011). Critical Water Resources Issues in the Nile River Basin. Nile River Basin: Hydrology, Climate, and Water Use, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-0689-7"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M., Abtew, W., and Setegn, S.G. (2014). Transboundary Rivers and the Nile. Nile River Basin: Ecohydrological Challenges, Climate Change, and Hydropolitics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-02720-3"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2013.11.017","article-title":"Assessment of Water Resources Availability and Demand in the Mara River Basin","volume":"115","author":"Dessu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3694","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7516","article-title":"Numerical Modeling of the Groundwater Flow System of the Gumera Sub-Basin in Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia","volume":"23","author":"Chebud","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melesse, A.M., Abtew, W., and Setegn, S.G. (2014). The Nile River Basin. Nile River Basin: Ecohydrological Challenges, Climate Change, and Hydropolitics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-02720-3"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Save, H. (2020, September 20). CSR GRACE and GRACE-FO RL06 Mascon Solutions v02. Available online: http:\/\/www2.csr.utexas.edu\/grace\/RL06_mascons.html."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s13137-020-00160-0","article-title":"Modelling Spatial Covariances for Terrestrial Water Storage Variations Verified with Synthetic GRACE-FO Data","volume":"11","author":"Boergens","year":"2020","journal-title":"GEM Int. J. Geomath."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1002\/2013GL058632","article-title":"Ensemble Prediction and Intercomparison Analysis of GRACE Time-Variable Gravity Field Models","volume":"41","author":"Sakumura","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0251.1","article-title":"CMIP5 Models\u2019 Ability to Capture Observed Trends under the Influence of Shifts and Persistence: An In-Depth Study on the Colorado River Basin","volume":"58","author":"Tamaddun","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-13-0190.1","article-title":"A Comparison of GLDAS Soil Moisture Anomalies against Standardized Precipitation Index and Multisatellite Estimations over South America","volume":"16","author":"Spennemann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5744","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6549","article-title":"A Comprehensive Evaluation of Soil Moisture and Soil Temperature from Third-Generation Atmospheric and Land Reanalysis Data Sets","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz Sabater, J. (2020, September 01). ERA5-Land Monthly Averaged Data from 1981 to Present. Available online: https:\/\/confluence.ecmwf.int\/display\/CKB\/ERA5-Land."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7755","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC03180","article-title":"Toward the True Near-Surface Wind Speed: Error Modeling and Calibration Using Triple Collocation","volume":"103","author":"Stoffelen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6780","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2734070","article-title":"Triple Collocation-Based Merging of Satellite Soil Moisture Retrievals","volume":"55","author":"Gruber","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-15-0206.1","article-title":"Impact of Model Relative Accuracy in Framework of Rescaling Observations in Hydrological Data Assimilation Studies","volume":"17","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonsor, H., Shamsudduha, M., Marchant, B., MacDonald, A., and Taylor, R. (2018). Seasonal and Decadal Groundwater Changes in African Sedimentary Aquifers Estimated Using GRACE Products and LSMs. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060904"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Hafen, R. (2019, September 15). stlplus: Enhanced Seasonal Decomposition of Time Series by Loess. Available online: https:\/\/rdrr.io\/cran\/stlplus\/."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"3","article-title":"STL: A Seasonal-Trend Decomposition","volume":"6","author":"Cleveland","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Off. Stat."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-016-9367-1","article-title":"Assessing Global Water Storage Variability from GRACE: Trends, Seasonal Cycle, Subseasonal Anomalies and Extremes","volume":"37","author":"Humphrey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00054-3","article-title":"Decomposition of Vegetation Cover into Woody and Herbaceous Components Using AVHRR NDVI Time Series","volume":"86","author":"Lu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.026","article-title":"GRACE Groundwater Drought Index: Evaluation of California Central Valley Groundwater Drought","volume":"198","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.09.063","article-title":"A Multivariate Approach for Persistence-Based Drought Prediction: Application to the 2010\u20132011 East Africa Drought","volume":"526","author":"AghaKouchak","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2013.03.009","article-title":"Multivariate Standardized Drought Index: A Parametric Multi-Index Model","volume":"57","author":"Hao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2014.11.012","article-title":"A Generalized Framework for Deriving Nonparametric Standardized Drought Indicators","volume":"76","author":"Farahmand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477-83.8.1181","article-title":"The Drought Monitor","volume":"83","author":"Svoboda","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2004.08.036","article-title":"The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) as an Indicator of Soil Moisture","volume":"30","author":"Mika","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth, Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D06104","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD014966","article-title":"Trend and Spectral Analysis of Rainfall over India during 1901\u20132000","volume":"116","author":"Joshi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s41748-017-0014-x","article-title":"Trend Analyses Revision, and Global Monthly Temperature Innovative Multi-Duration Analysis","volume":"1","author":"Mohorji","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JCLI1822.1","article-title":"Global Trends and Variability in Soil Moisture and Drought Characteristics, 1950\u20132000, from Observation-Driven Simulations of the Terrestrial Hydrologic Cycle","volume":"21","author":"Sheffield","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5509","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-22-5509-2018","article-title":"Modelling the Water Balance of Lake Victoria (East Africa)\u2014Part 1: Observational Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Vanderkelen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-007-9191-y","article-title":"The Falling Lake Victoria Water Level: GRACE, TRIMM, and CHAMP Satellite Analysis of the Lake Basin","volume":"22","author":"Awange","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5217","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR017349","article-title":"Quantifying Renewable Groundwater Stress with GRACE","volume":"51","author":"Richey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34036","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/3\/034036","article-title":"Human Water Consumption Intensifies Hydrological Drought Worldwide","volume":"8","author":"Wada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-011-0779-1","article-title":"Groundwater\/Surface-Water Interactions on Deeply Weathered Surfaces of Low Relief: Evidence from Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, Uganda","volume":"19","author":"Owor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2014.06.010","article-title":"Water Storage Changes and Climate Variability within the Nile Basin between 2002 and 2011","volume":"73","author":"Awange","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50235","article-title":"Can the 2011 East African Drought Be Attributed to Human-Induced Climate Change?","volume":"40","author":"Lott","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9768","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-15-0140.1","article-title":"Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa","volume":"28","author":"Rowell","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3631","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-3631-2016","article-title":"Drought in a Human-Modified World: Reframing Drought Definitions, Understanding, and Analysis Approaches","volume":"20","author":"Stahl","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1085","article-title":"Hydrological Drought Explained","volume":"2","year":"2015","journal-title":"WIREs Water"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4025","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50355","article-title":"A ScPDSI-Based Global Data Set of Dry and Wet Spells for 1901\u20132009","volume":"118","author":"Barichivich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"FAO (2020, September 10). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World. Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security, Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/publications\/sofi\/2020\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1002\/2016RG000544","article-title":"Climate and Climatic Variability of Rainfall over Eastern Africa","volume":"55","author":"Nicholson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"EM-DAT (2020). The Emergency Events Database, EM-DAT. Available online: https:\/\/emdat.be."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-012-0746-3","article-title":"Recent Drought and Precipitation Tendencies in Ethiopia","volume":"112","author":"Viste","year":"2013","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"NBI (2019). Reducing Flood Devastation in the Nile Basin."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065004","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aaba1b","article-title":"Projected Climate over the Greater Horn of Africa under 1.5 \u00b0C and 2 \u00b0C Global Warming","volume":"13","author":"Osima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.12.011","article-title":"A Multi-Model and Multi-Index Evaluation of Drought Characteristics in the 21st Century","volume":"526","author":"Touma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4817","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-4817-2013","article-title":"GRACE Water Storage Estimates for the Middle East and Other Regions with Significant Reservoir and Lake Storage","volume":"17","author":"Longuevergne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2276","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014251","article-title":"A Statistical Approach to Estimating Evapotranspiration from Diurnal Groundwater Level Fluctuations","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1137","article-title":"Continental, and Global Scale Flood Forecasting Systems","volume":"3","author":"Emerton","year":"2016","journal-title":"WIREs Water"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011312","article-title":"Ground Referencing GRACE Satellite Estimates of Groundwater Storage Changes in the California Central Valley, USA","volume":"48","author":"Scanlon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/651\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:23:03Z","timestamp":1760160183000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/651"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13040651"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13040651","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]}}}