{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]],"date-time":"2026-04-11T01:56:16Z","timestamp":1775872576270,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]],"date-time":"2021-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This research was funded by the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (no. 41825009), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 41904026)","award":[", the Hubei Province Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 2018CFA081)."],"award-info":[{"award-number":[", the Hubei Province Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 2018CFA081)."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Northwest Pacific Ocean (NWP) is one of the most vulnerable regions that has been hit by typhoons. In September 2018, Mangkhut was the 22nd Tropical Cyclone (TC) over the NWP regions (so, the event was numbered as 1822). In this paper, we investigated the highest amplitude ionospheric variations, along with the atmospheric anomalies, such as the sea-level pressure, Mangkhut\u2019s cloud system, and the meridional and zonal wind during the typhoon. Regional Ionosphere Maps (RIMs) were created through the Hong Kong Continuously Operating Reference Stations (HKCORS) and International GNSS Service (IGS) data around the area of Mangkhut typhoon. RIMs were utilized to analyze the ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) response over the maximum wind speed points (maximum spots) under the meticulous observations of the solar-terrestrial environment and geomagnetic storm indices. Ionospheric vertical TEC (VTEC) time sequences over the maximum spots are detected by three methods: interquartile range method (IQR), enhanced average difference (EAD), and range of ten days (RTD) during the super typhoon Mangkhut. The research findings indicated significant ionospheric variations over the maximum spots during this powerful tropical cyclone within a few hours before the extreme wind speed. Moreover, the ionosphere showed a positive response where the maximum VTEC amplitude variations coincided with the cyclone rainbands or typhoon edges rather than the center of the storm. The sea-level pressure tends to decrease around the typhoon periphery, and the highest ionospheric VTEC amplitude was observed when the low-pressure cell covers the largest area. The possible mechanism of the ionospheric response is based on strong convective cells that create the gravity waves over tropical cyclones. Moreover, the critical change state in the meridional wind happened on the same day of maximum ionospheric variations on the 256th day of the year (DOY 256). This comprehensive analysis suggests that the meridional winds and their resulting waves may contribute in one way or another to upper atmosphere-ionosphere coupling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040661","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T18:45:00Z","timestamp":1613155500000},"page":"661","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Analysis of Atmospheric and Ionospheric Variations Due to Impacts of Super Typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in the Northwest Pacific Ocean"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3539-7450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Freeshah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Department of Surveying Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, 108 Shoubra St., Cairo 11629, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment and Geodesy, Ministry of Education, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0833-7113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erman","family":"\u015eent\u00fcrk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying Engineering, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli 41001, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5713-3248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Arqim","family":"Adil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of GNSS, Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1009-6459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B. G.","family":"Mousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1196-1248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aqil","family":"Tariq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaodong","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment and Geodesy, Ministry of Education, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Mervat","family":"Refaat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, 108 Shoubra St., Cairo 11629, Egypt"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1029\/JA086iA02p00609","article-title":"Theoretical predictions for ion composition in the high-latitude winter F-region for solar minimum and low magnetic activity","volume":"86","author":"Sojka","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. 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