{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T05:57:17Z","timestamp":1776146237511,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,14]],"date-time":"2021-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613260800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Municipality and Environment, Qatar","award":["29-7027140"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["29-7027140"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the past few decades the country of Qatar has been one of the fastest growing economies in the Middle East; it has witnessed a rapid increase in its population, growth of its urban centers, and development of its natural resources. These anthropogenic activities compounded with natural forcings (e.g., climate change) will most likely introduce environmental effects that should be assessed. In this manuscript, we identify and assess one of these effects, namely, ground deformation over the entire country of Qatar. We use the Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) InSAR time series approach in conjunction with ALOS Palsar-1 (January 2007 to March 2011) and Sentinel-1 (March 2017 to December 2019) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) datasets to assess ground deformation and conduct spatial and temporal correlations between the observed deformation with relevant datasets to identify the controlling factors. The findings indicate: (1) the deformation products revealed areas of subsidence and uplift with high vertical velocities of up to 35 mm\/yr; (2) the deformation rates were consistent with those extracted from the continuously operating reference GPS stations of Qatar; (3) many inland and coastal sabkhas (salt flats) showed evidence for uplift (up to 35 mm\/yr) due to the continuous evaporation of the saline waters within the sabkhas and the deposition of the evaporites in the surficial and near-surficial sabkha sediments; (4) the increased precipitation during Sentinel-1 period compared to the ALOS Palsar-1 period led to a rise in groundwater levels and an increase in the areas occupied by surface water within the sabkhas, which in turn increased the rate of deposition of the evaporitic sediments; (5) high subsidence rates (up to 14 mm\/yr) were detected over landfills and dumpsites, caused by mechanical compaction and biochemical processes; and (6) the deformation rates over areas surrounding known sinkhole locations were low (+\/\u22122 mm\/yr). We suggest that this study can pave the way to similar countrywide studies over the remaining Arabian Peninsula countries and to the development of a ground motion monitoring system for the entire Arabian Peninsula.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040702","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,14]],"date-time":"2021-02-14T08:53:56Z","timestamp":1613292836000},"page":"702","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Countrywide Monitoring of Ground Deformation Using InSAR Time Series: A Case Study from Qatar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5579-0386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mustafa Kemal","family":"Emil","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological and Environmental Sciences Department, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49009, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3841-4802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Sultan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological and Environmental Sciences Department, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49009, USA"}]},{"given":"Khaled","family":"Alakhras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Municipality and Environment, Doha, Qatar"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4775-813X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guzalay","family":"Sataer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological and Environmental Sciences Department, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49009, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4733-1360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabreen","family":"Gozi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geology Department, Suez Canal University, Ismalia 41522, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Al-Marri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Municipality and Environment, Doha, Qatar"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9376-9884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esayas","family":"Gebremichael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferretti, A., Prati, C., and Rocca, F. (2000). Nonlinear subsidence rate estimation using permanent scatterers in differential SAR interferometry. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868878"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L23611","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021737","article-title":"A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent scatterers","volume":"31","author":"Hooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.828196","article-title":"A small-baseline approach for investigating deformations on full-resolution differential SAR interferograms","volume":"42","author":"Lanari","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L16302","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL034654","article-title":"A multi-temporal InSAR method incorporating both persistent scatterer and small baseline approaches","volume":"35","author":"Hooper","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3460","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2124465","article-title":"A new algorithm for processing interferometric data-stacks: SqueeSAR","volume":"49","author":"Ferretti","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van der Horst, T., Rutten, M.M., van de Giesen, N.C., and Hanssen, R.F. (2018). Monitoring land subsidence in Yangon, Myanmar using Sentinel-1 persistent scatterer interferometry and assessment of driving mechanisms. Remote Sens. Environ.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.08.004"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslan, G., Cak\u0131r, Z., Ergintav, S., Lasserre, C., Renard, F., Cakir, Z., Ergintav, S., Lasserre, C., and Renard, F. (2018). Analysis of secular ground motions in istanbul from a long-term InSAR time-series (1992\u20132017). Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030408"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3208","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JB015084","article-title":"Assessing land deformation and sea encroachment in the Nile Delta: A radar interferometric and inundation modeling approach","volume":"123","author":"Gebremichael","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3782","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012636","article-title":"Anthropogenic and geologic influences on subsidence in the vicinity of New Orleans, Louisiana","volume":"121","author":"Jones","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., and Lu, Z. (2018). Association between localized geohazards in West Texas and human activities, recognized by Sentinel-1A\/B satellite radar imagery. Sci. Rep., 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-23143-6"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baer, G., Magen, Y., Nof, R.N., Raz, E., Lyakhovsky, V., and Shalev, E. (2018). InSAR measurements and viscoelastic modeling of sinkhole precursory subsidence: Implications for sinkhole formation, early warning, and sediment properties. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 678\u2013693.","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JF004594"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nof, R.N., Abelson, M., Raz, E., Magen, Y., Atzori, S., Salvi, S., and Baer, G. (2019). SAR interferometry for sinkhole early warning and susceptibility assessment along the Dead Sea, Israel. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010089"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.07.001","article-title":"Ground subsidence monitoring with SAR interferometry techniques in the rural area of Al Wagan, UAE","volume":"216","author":"Liosis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-017-9458-7","article-title":"Use of geophysical and remote sensing data for assessment of aquifer depletion and related land deformation","volume":"39","author":"Othman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2016.08.012","article-title":"Use of multiple age tracers to estimate groundwater residence times and long-term recharge rates in arid southern Oman","volume":"74","author":"Strauch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2019.06.017","article-title":"Assessment of age, origin, and sustainability of fossil aquifers: A geochemical and remote sensing-based approach","volume":"576","author":"Sultan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehls, J.F., Larsen, Y., Marinkovic, P., Lauknes, T.R., St\u00f8dle, D., and Moldestad, D.A. (August, January 28). INSAR.No: A national Insar deformation mapping\/monitoring service in Norway\u2014from concept to operations. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2019\u20132019 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2019.8898614"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.05.015","article-title":"A Copernicus downstream-service for the nationwide monitoring of surface displacements in Germany","volume":"202","author":"Kalia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2021, January 26). The Dutch Ground Motion Service WebGIS. Available online: https:\/\/bodemdalingskaart.nl\/en-us\/."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"31","article-title":"Nationwide deformation monitoring with SqueeSAR\u00ae using Sentinel-1 data","volume":"382","author":"Bischoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Assoc. Hydrol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1109\/TBDATA.2018.2863558","article-title":"National scale surface deformation time series generation through advanced DInSAR processing of Sentinel-1 data within a cloud computing environment","volume":"6","author":"Zinno","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Big Data"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.07.017","article-title":"Analysis of surface deformations over the whole Italian territory by interferometric processing of ERS, Envisat and COSMO-SkyMed radar data","volume":"202","author":"Costantini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crosetto, M., Solari, L., Mr\u00f3z, M., Balasis-Levinsen, J., Casagli, N., Frei, M., Oyen, A., Moldestad, D.A., Bateson, L., and Guerrieri, L. (2020). The evolution of wide-area DInSAR: From regional and national services to the European ground motion service. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12122043"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanari, R., Bonano, M., Casu, F., De Luca, C., Manunta, M., Manzo, M., Onorato, G., and Zinno, I. (2020). Automatic generation of Sentinel-1 continental scale DInSAR deformation time series through an extended P-SBAS processing pipeline in a cloud computing environment. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182961"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2021, January 27). United Nations World Population Prospects. Available online: https:\/\/population.un.org\/wpp\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krupansky, J.T., Knight, M.A., Orndorff, R.C., Al-Akhras, K.M., Mouradian, A.G., and Saleh, A.F. (2019, January 24\u201327). The value of data\u2014The Qatar Geologic Mapping Project. Proceedings of the Geo-Congress 2019: Data, Software, Education, and Tribute to Ralph Peck, Pennsylvania, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482162.002"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"10","article-title":"Sabkhas in Qatar Peninsula","volume":"1","author":"Ashour","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landsc. Geodivers."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A., B\u00f6er, B., Kust, G.S., and Barth, H.-J. (2006). Salt lake area, northeastern part of Dukhan Sabkha, Qatar. Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume II: West and Central Asia, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-5072-5"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Youssef, M. (2015). Gypsum Crystals Formation and Habits, Dukhan Sabkha, Qatar. J. Earth Sci. Clim. Chang., 6.","DOI":"10.4172\/2157-7617.1000321"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2013.03.017","article-title":"Middle and Late Pleistocene humid periods recorded in palaeolake deposits of the Nafud desert, Saudi Arabia","volume":"70","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"132","article-title":"Middle Pleistocene karst evolution in the State of Qatar, Arabian Gulf","volume":"64","author":"Sadiq","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Cave Karst Stud."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orndorff, R., Knight, M., Krupansky, J., Al-Akhras, K., Stamm, R., Samad, U., and Ahmed, E. (USA, January Shepherdstown,). Linking geology and geotechnical engineering in karst: The Qatar Geologic Mapping Project. Proceedings of the 15th Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst and the 3rd Appalachian Karst Symposium, 2\u20136 April 2018.","DOI":"10.5038\/9780991000982.1015"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Planning and Statistics Authority of Qatar (2019). Environmental statistics in State of Qatar 2017."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"State of Qatar (1980). Geological Map, 1: 100 000, Sheets 2\u20134, State of Qatar, Industrial Development Technical Centre."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuhrmann, T., and Garthwaite, M.C. (2019). Resolving three-dimensional surface motion with InSAR: Constraints from multi-geometry data fusion. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030241"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M., Yang, T., Zhang, L., Lin, J., Qin, X., and Liao, M. (2018). Spatio-temporal characterization of a reclamation settlement in the Shanghai coastal area with time series analyses of X-, C-, and L-band SAR datasets. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020329"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R.F. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021, January 03). SARMAP SBAS Tutorial. Available online: http:\/\/www.sarmap.ch\/tutorials\/sbas_tutorial_V_2_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1029\/1998GL900033","article-title":"Radar interferogram filtering for geophysical applications","volume":"25","author":"Goldstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"267","article-title":"Generalized phase unwrapping approach for sparse data","volume":"1","author":"Costantini","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03860","article-title":"Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks","volume":"102","author":"Zumberge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Huffman, G.J., Stocker, E.F., Bolvin, D.T., Nelkin, E.J., and Tan, J. (2019). GPM IMERG Final Precipitation L3 Half Hourly 0.1 Degree x 0.1 Degree V06."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1029\/2007EO020003","article-title":"Online analysis enhances use of NASA Earth Science Data","volume":"88","author":"Acker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eos Trans. AGU"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-016-2576-6","article-title":"Rainfall in Qatar: Is it changing?","volume":"85","author":"Rahman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40808-016-0252-1","article-title":"Groundwater flow modeling for impact assessment of port dredging works on coastal hydrogeology in the area of Al-Wakrah (Qatar)","volume":"2","author":"Lachaal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Model. Earth Syst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorelick, N., Hancher, M., Dixon, M., Ilyushchenko, S., Thau, D., and Moore, R. (2017). Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sens. Environ.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1038\/nature20584","article-title":"High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes","volume":"540","author":"Pekel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2012.03.009","article-title":"Salt lake deformation detected from space","volume":"331\u2013332","author":"Ruch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-011-0332-2","article-title":"An overview of solid waste management and plastic recycling in Qatar","volume":"20","author":"Madi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1177\/0734242X14558667","article-title":"Estimation of the components of municipal solid waste settlement","volume":"33","author":"Lakshmikanthan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1080\/12265934.2018.1468275","article-title":"Ground subsidence observation of solid waste landfill park using multi-temporal radar interferometry","volume":"23","author":"Baek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Urban Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Milillo, P., Fielding, E.J., Masi, S., Lundgren, P., Serio, C., Felding, E.J., Masi, S., Lungren, P., and Serio, C. (2015). Monitoring municipal solid waste small magnitude landfill settlement with DinSAR. EARSeL eProceedings, 25\u201336."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-5298-x","article-title":"Gravity investigations of recent sinkholes and karst pits of Dahal Al-Hamam, State of Qatar","volume":"75","author":"Howari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/702\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:24:12Z","timestamp":1760160252000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/4\/702"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,14]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13040702"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13040702","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,14]]}}}