{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T09:07:58Z","timestamp":1778144878375,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Small-scale placer mining in Colombia takes place in rural areas and involves excavations resulting in large footprints of bare soil and water ponds. Such excavated areas comprise a mosaic of challenging terrains for cloud and cloud-shadow detection of Sentinel-2 (S2A and S2B) data used to identify, map, and monitor these highly dynamic activities. This paper uses an efficient two-step machine-learning approach using freely available tools to detect clouds and shadows in the context of mapping small-scale mining areas, one which places an emphasis on the reduction of misclassification of mining sites as clouds or shadows. The first step is comprised of a supervised support-vector-machine classification identifying clouds, cloud shadows, and clear pixels. The second step is a geometry-based improvement of cloud-shadow detection where solar-cloud-shadow-sensor geometry is used to exclude commission errors in cloud shadows. The geometry-based approach makes use of sun angles and sensor view angles available in Sentinel-2 metadata to identify potential directions of cloud shadow for each cloud projection. The approach does not require supplementary data on cloud-top or bottom heights nor cloud-top ruggedness. It assumes that the location of dense clouds is mainly impacted by meteorological conditions and that cloud-top and cloud-base heights vary in a predefined manner. The methodology has been tested over an intensively excavated and well-studied pilot site and shows 50% more detection of clouds and shadows than Sen2Cor. Furthermore, it has reached a Specificity of 1 in the correct detection of mining sites and water ponds, proving itself to be a reliable approach for further related studies on the mapping of small-scale mining in the area. Although the methodology was tailored to the context of small-scale mining in the region of Antioquia, it is a scalable approach and can be adapted to other areas and conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040736","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T21:35:42Z","timestamp":1613597742000},"page":"736","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Cloud and Cloud-Shadow Detection for Applications in Mapping Small-Scale Mining in Colombia Using Sentinel-2 Imagery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Elsy","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Minerals Engineering, Materials &amp; Environment (GeMMe), University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Minerals Engineering, Materials &amp; Environment (GeMMe), University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"},{"name":"The College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luisa","family":"Lema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United Nations Environment Programme, Bogota Cl. 82 #10-62, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Barnab\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Minerals Engineering, Materials &amp; Environment (GeMMe), University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1825-8865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory","family":"Giuliani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, GRID-Geneva, Bd Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, EnviroSPACE Lab., Bd Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9096-4414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierre","family":"Lacroix","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, GRID-Geneva, Bd Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, EnviroSPACE Lab., Bd Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Pirard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Minerals Engineering, Materials &amp; Environment (GeMMe), University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Ministerio de Minas y Energ\u00eda, C. 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