{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T01:40:12Z","timestamp":1761788412546,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]],"date-time":"2021-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614988800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Rijeka research project Research of environmental impact on the operation of satellite navigation system in maritime navigation: uniri-tehnic-18-66","award":["uniri-tehnic-18-68"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["uniri-tehnic-18-68"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This research represents a contribution to the theory on the coupling of the volcanic activity and the ionospheric dynamics, represented by total electron content (TEC) patterns and their behaviour. The ionospheric response to the activity of the Etna volcano has been analysed using global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-derived TEC values, employing data from International GNSS Service (IGS) reference station near the volcano and on two distant IGS locations. Volcanic activity has been modelled using volcanic radiative power (VRP) data obtained by the Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity (MIROVA) system. The estimated minimal night TEC values have been averaged over defined index days of the VRP increase. During the analysed period of 19 years, the volcano activity was categorised according to pre-defined criteria. The influence of current space weather and short-term solar activity on TEC near the volcano was systematically minimised. The results showed mean\/median TEC increases of approximately +3 standard deviations from the overall mean values, with peak values placed approximately 5 days before the VRP increase and followed by general TEC depletion around the time of the actual volcanic activity increase. Additionally, TEC oscillation pattern was found over the volcano site with a half-period of 6.25 days. The main interpretation of results indicates that the volcanic activity has modified the ionospheric dynamics within the nearby ionospheric region before the actual VRP increase, and that the residual impact in the volcano\u2019s surrounding area refers to terrestrial endogenous processes and air\u2013earth currents. Those changes can be detected during criteria predefined in the research: during quiet space weather conditions, observing night-time TEC values and within the limits of low short-term solar influence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13051006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]],"date-time":"2021-03-07T21:52:15Z","timestamp":1615153935000},"page":"1006","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Contribution to the Research of the Effects of Etna Volcano Activity on the Features of the Ionospheric Total Electron Content Behaviour"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ivan","family":"Toman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Maritime Department, University of Zadar, Ulica Mihovila Pavlinovi\u0107a 1, 23000 Zadar, Croatia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0643-841X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Br\u010di\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Studentska 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0067-6150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serdjo","family":"Kos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Studentska 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pulinets, S., and Ouzounov, D. (2018). The Possibility of Earthquake Forecasting, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/978-0-7503-1248-6"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parkinson, B.W., Spilker, J.J., Axelrad, P., and Enge, P. (1996). Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.","DOI":"10.2514\/4.866395"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"485","article-title":"Ionospheric Effects on GPS","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Parkinson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Pulinets, S., and Boyarchuk, K. (2005). Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes, Springer."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2010.03.005","article-title":"Lithosphere\u2013Atmosphere\u2013Ionosphere Coupling (LAIC) model\u2014An unified concept for earthquake precursors validation","volume":"41","author":"Pulinets","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-008-9362-z","article-title":"Electrical Charging of Volcanic Plumes","volume":"137","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-006-9007-2","article-title":"Electrification of volcanic plumes","volume":"27","author":"Mather","year":"2006","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nejadkoorki, F. (2011). The Electrical Conductivity as an Index of Air Pollution in the Atmosphere. Advanced Air Pollution, Tech Open.","DOI":"10.5772\/710"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2008.05.018","article-title":"The global electrical circuit: A review","volume":"91","author":"Williams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1063\/1.882422","article-title":"The Global Electric Circuit","volume":"51","author":"Bering","year":"1998","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Roble, R.G., and Tzur, I. (1986). The Global Atmospheric Electrical Circuit. Study in Geophysics: The Earth\u2019s Electrical Enviroment, National Academy Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9169(91)90097-Q","article-title":"On Modeling Component Processes in the Earth\u2019s Global Electric Circuit","volume":"53","author":"Roble","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00876837","article-title":"Modeling the ionosphere wind dynamo: A review","volume":"131","author":"Richmond","year":"1989","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/0032-0633(75)90018-5","article-title":"The solar wind-magnetosphere dynamo and the magnetospheric substorm","volume":"23","author":"Akasofu","year":"1975","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2009.12.004","article-title":"Atmospheric Electricity Coupling Between Earthquake Regions and the Ionosphere","volume":"72","author":"Harrison","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tramutoli, V., Marchese, F., Falconieri, A., Filizzola, C., Genzano, N., Hattori, K., Lisi, M., Liu, J.Y., Ouzounov, D., and Parrot, M. (2019). Tropospheric and Ionospheric Anomalies Induced by Volcanic and Saharan Dust Events as Part of Geosphere Interaction Phenomena. Geosciences, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences9040177"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2016.06.017","article-title":"Total electron content anomalies associated with global VEI4+ volcanic eruptions during 2002\u20132015","volume":"325","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10303","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023382","article-title":"Ionospheric detection and localization of volcano eruptions on the example of the April 2015 Calbuco events","volume":"121","author":"Shults","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2010.04785.x","article-title":"Signals recorded by DEMETER satellite over active volcanoes during the period 2004 August\u20132007 December","volume":"183","author":"Zlotnicki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/530865","article-title":"Ionospheric Disturbances Recorded by DEMETER Satellite over Active Volcanoes: From August 2004 to December 2010","volume":"2013","author":"Zlotnicki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Wijaya, D.D. (2018, January 21\u201323). Seven days in Chile: Impact of the 2011 Puyehue-Cordon Caulle volcanic eruption on GPS ionospheric delay. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Global Navigation Satellite System 2018 (ISGNSS 2018), Bali, Indonesia. Available online: https:\/\/www.e3s-conferences.org\/articles\/e3sconf\/abs\/2019\/20\/contents\/contents.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2020.107047","article-title":"Harmonic ionospheric oscillation by the 2010 eruption of the Merapi volcano, Indonesia, and the relevance of its amplitude to the mass eruption rate","volume":"405","author":"Cahyadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1995)052<2670:AROTAA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Acoustic resonance of the atmospheric at 3.7 mHz","volume":"52","author":"Tahira","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0300-3","article-title":"The International GNSS Service in a changing landscape of Global Navigation Satellite Systems","volume":"83","author":"Dow","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-010-4226-9","article-title":"Solar activity effects of the ionosphere: A brief review","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2013028","article-title":"Solar activity impact on the Earth\u2019s upper atmosphere","volume":"3","author":"Kutiev","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zolesi, B., and Cander, L.R. (2014). Ionospheric Prediction and Forecasting, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38430-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schunk, R., and Nagy, A. (2009). Ionospheres: Physics, Plasma Physics and Chemistry, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511635342"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1002\/swe.20064","article-title":"The 10.7 cm solar radio flux (F10.7)","volume":"11","author":"Tapping","year":"2013","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005082526237","article-title":"The Advanced Composition Explorer","volume":"86","author":"Stone","year":"1998","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"161","article-title":"Impulsive and long-enduring sudden enhancements of solar radio emission at 10 centimeter wavelength","volume":"52","author":"Covington","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. R. Astron. Soc. Can."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hathaway, D.H. (2010). The Solar Cycle, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.12942\/lrsp-2010-1"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"411","article-title":"The three-hour-range index measuring geomagnetic activity","volume":"44","author":"Bartels","year":"1939","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2004SW000089","article-title":"Why Kp is such a good measure of magnetospheric convection","volume":"2","author":"Thomsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1029\/91RG00994","article-title":"The K-derived planetary indices: Description and availability","volume":"29","author":"Menvielle","year":"1991","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Chapman, S., and Bartels, J. (1940). Geomagnetism, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Klobuchar, J.A. (1988, January 7\u20139). Ionospheric corrections for timing applications. Proceedings of the 20th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Application and Planning Meeting, Vienna, Virginia."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2004.12.076","article-title":"The ionosphere, radio navigation and global navigation satellite systems","volume":"35","author":"Kintner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Space. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrovski, I., and Tsujii, T. (2012). Digital Satellite Navigation and Geophysics, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511659072"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0266-1","article-title":"The IGS VTEC maps: A reliable source of ionospheric information since 1998","volume":"83","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3319\/TAO.1996.7.1.107(A)","article-title":"Total Electron Content Obtained by Using the Global Positioning System","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Terr. Atmos. Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Kouba, J. (2009). A Guide to Using International GNSS Service (IGS) Products, IGS Central Bureau."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Schaer, S. (1999). Mapping and Predicting the Earth\u2019s Ionosphere Using the Global Positioning System, Institut f\u00fcr Geod\u00e4sie und Photogrammetrie, Eidg. Technische Hochschule Z\u00fcrich."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Subirana, J.S., Zornoza, J.M.J., and Hernandez-Pajares, M. (2013). GNSS Data Processing, Volume I: Fundamentals and Algorithms, ESA Communications."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2007RS003770","article-title":"Ionospheric measurement with GPS: Receiver techniques and methods","volume":"43","author":"Dyrud","year":"2008","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"B03203","article-title":"The initial phases of the 2008\u20132009 Mount Etna eruption: A multidisciplinary approach for hazard assessment","volume":"116","author":"Bonaccorso","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2011.01.003","article-title":"Volcano surveillance using infrared cameras","volume":"106","author":"Spampinato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blackett, M. (2017). An overview of infrared remote sensing of volcanic activity. J. Imaging, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging3020013"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1126\/science.146.3645.733","article-title":"Infrared surveys of Hawaiian Volcanoes","volume":"146","author":"Fisher","year":"1964","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"13","article-title":"Infrared spectral returns and imagery of the Earth from space and their application to geological problems: Scientific experiments for manned orbital flight","volume":"4","author":"Gawarecki","year":"1965","journal-title":"Am. Astronaut. Soc. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harris, A.J.L. (2013). Thermal Remote Sensing of Active Volcanoes: A User\u2019s Manual, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139029346"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2019.00362","article-title":"Thermal Remote Sensing for Global Volcano Monitoring: Experiences from the MIROVA system","volume":"7","author":"Coppola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"544","article-title":"The HOTSAT volcano monitoring system based on a combined use of SEVIRI and MODIS multispectral data","volume":"54","author":"Ganci","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1144\/SP426.5","article-title":"Enhanced volcanic hot-spot detection using MODIS IR data: Results from the MIROVA system","volume":"426","author":"Coppola","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-45753-4","article-title":"Monitoring endogenous growth of open-vent volcanoes by balancing thermal and SO2 emissions data derived from space","volume":"9","author":"Coppola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Toller, G.N., Isaacman, A., and Kuyper, J. (2009). MODIS Level 1B Product User\u2019s Guide, Members of the MODIS Characterization Support Team for NASA\/Goddard Space Flight Center."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"MIROVA (2020, January 13). A Collaborative Project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy). Available online: http:\/\/www.mirovaweb.it."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"International GNSS Service (IGS) (2020, July 01). Access to Products. Available online: https:\/\/kb.igs.org\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115003935351-Access-to-Products."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center (2020, March 13). Coordinated Data Analysis Web (CDAWeb), Available online: https:\/\/cdaweb.gsfc.nasa.gov\/istp_public."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2012.09.005","article-title":"Rheological control on the radiant density of active lava flows and domes","volume":"249","author":"Coppola","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Gurtner, W., and Estey, L. (2009). RINEX: The Receiver Independent Exchange Format. V3.01, IGS Central Bureau."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Krishna, S.G. (2019, March 21). GPS-TEC Analysis Software Version 2.9. Available online: http:\/\/seemala.blogspot.in\/."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep33499","article-title":"Global Ionospheric Modelling using Multi-GNSS: BeiDou, Galileo, GLONASS and GPS","volume":"6","author":"Ren","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Br\u010di\u0107, D. (2015). A Model of Non-Specific Daily Pattern of the Satellite Positioning Signal Ionospheric Delay. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka]. Available online: https:\/\/repository.pfri.uniri.hr\/en\/islandora\/object\/pfri%3A175."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.31217\/p.33.2.11","article-title":"On Global Ionospheric Maps based winter-time ionospheric delay with reference to the Klobuchar model: Case study of the Northern Adriatic","volume":"33","author":"Filjar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pomorstvo"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Astronomical Institute of the University of Berne, Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (AIUB CODE) (2019, February 14). Differential Code Bias IONEX DCB Files. Available online: Ftp:\/\/ftp.aiub.unibe.ch\/CODE\/."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiang, Y., and Yang, G. (2019). An Enhanced Mapping Function with Ionospheric Varying Height. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121497"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-31-163-2013","article-title":"GPS observations of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances over Europe","volume":"31","author":"Otsuka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1029\/RG020i002p00293","article-title":"Atmospheric gravity waves generated in the high-latitude ionosphere: A review","volume":"20","author":"Hunsucker","year":"1982","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaso, A. (2018). Computation of the normalized cross-correlation by fast Fourier transform. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0203434"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1139828","article-title":"Using the fast Fourier transform to determine the period of a physical oscillator with precision","volume":"59","author":"Goldblum","year":"1988","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1109\/MSPEC.1967.5217220","article-title":"The fast Fourier transform","volume":"4","author":"Brigham","year":"1967","journal-title":"IEEE Spectr."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/5\/1006\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:34:10Z","timestamp":1760160850000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/5\/1006"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13051006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13051006","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]]}}}