{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T14:30:00Z","timestamp":1772116200683,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]],"date-time":"2021-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41771570; 41771573; 41871167"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41771570; 41771573; 41871167"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"The International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["132c35kysb2020007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["132c35kysb2020007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cities are growing higher and denser, and understanding and constructing the compact city form is of great importance to optimize sustainable urbanization. The two-dimensional (2D) urban compact form has been widely studied by previous researchers, while the driving mechanism of three-dimensional (3D) compact morphology, which reflects the reality of the urban environment has seldom been developed. In this study, land surface temperature (LST) was retrieved by using the mono-window algorithm method based on Landsat 8 images of Xiamen in South China, which were acquired respectively on 14 April, 15 August, 2 October, and 21 December in 2017, and 11 March in 2018. We then aimed to explore the driving mechanism of the 3D compact form on the urban heat environment (UHE) based on our developed 3D Compactness Index (VCI) and remote sensing, as well as Geo-Detector techniques. The results show that the 3D compact form can positively effect UHE better than individual urban form construction elements, as can the combination of the 2D compact form with building height. Individually, building density had a greater effect on UHE than that of building height. At the same time, an integration of building density and height showed an enhanced inter-effect on UHE. Moreover, we explore the temporal and spatial UHE heterogeneity with regards to 3D compact form across different seasons. We also investigate the UHE impacts discrepancy caused by different 3D compactness categories. This shows that increasing the 3D compactness of an urban community from 0.016 to 0.323 would increase the heat accumulation, which was, in terms of satellite derived LST, by 1.35 \u00b0C, suggesting that higher compact forms strengthen UHE. This study highlights the challenge of the urban 3D compact form in respect of its UHE impact. The related evaluation in this study would help shed light on urban form optimization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13061067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]],"date-time":"2021-03-11T20:17:40Z","timestamp":1615493860000},"page":"1067","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["The Challenge of the Urban Compact Form: Three-Dimensional Index Construction and Urban Land Surface Temperature Impacts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9635-7570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han","family":"Yan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6829-0268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7479-2333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Xiamen Key Laboratory of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4148-5513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoqin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Xiamen Key Laboratory of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2421-0243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caige","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}]},{"given":"Xinyue","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Xiamen Key Laboratory of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Str. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Xiamen Key Laboratory of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations (2018). World Urbanization Prospects: The Revision, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/13504509.2010.493324","article-title":"Urbanisation effects on summer habitat comfort: A case study of three coastal cities in southeast China","volume":"17","author":"Ye","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.19.10.1151","article-title":"The ORSA New Orleans address on compact city","volume":"19","author":"Dantzig","year":"1973","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"23","article-title":"The Compact City and Sustainable Urban Development in China","volume":"19","author":"Han","year":"2004","journal-title":"Urban Plan. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2148\/benv.36.1.5","article-title":"Revisiting the Compact City?","volume":"36","author":"Dempsey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105132","article-title":"Changing the urban design of cities for health: The superblock model","volume":"134","author":"Mueller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2019.04.013","article-title":"Compact city, urban sprawl, and subjective well-being","volume":"92","author":"Mouratidis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2012.04.001","article-title":"Are compact cities environmentally friendly?","volume":"72","author":"Riou","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2017.07.038","article-title":"Reconstruction of historical datasets for analyzing spatiotemporal influence of built environment on urban microclimates across a compact city","volume":"123","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3670","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70403670","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Variation in Surface Urban Heat Island Intensity and Associated Determinants across Major Chinese Cities","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.109545","article-title":"Review on carbon emissions of commercial buildings","volume":"119","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.02.011","article-title":"A sustainable urban form: The challenges of compactness from the viewpoint of energy consumption and carbon emission","volume":"93","author":"Ye","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142334","article-title":"Surface urban heat islands in Italian metropolitan cities: Tree cover and impervious surface influences","volume":"751","author":"Morabito","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00079-8","article-title":"Thermal remote sensing of urban climates","volume":"86","author":"Voogt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-6981(73)90140-6","article-title":"City size and the urban heat island","volume":"7","author":"Oke","year":"1973","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2016.06.021","article-title":"Characterizing the impact of urban morphology heterogeneity on land surface temperature in Guangzhou, China. Environ","volume":"84","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Modell. Softw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-012-9731-6","article-title":"Spatial pattern of greenspace affects land surface temperature: Evidence from the heavily urbanized Beijing metropolitan area, China","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.03.009","article-title":"Does spatial configuration matter? Understanding the effects of land cover pattern on land surface temperature in urban landscapes","volume":"102","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.04.105","article-title":"Spatial-temporal change of land surface temperature across 285 cities in China: An urban-rural contrast perspective","volume":"635","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1512-9","article-title":"Magnitude of urban heat islands largely explained by climate and population","volume":"573","author":"Manoli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.06.010","article-title":"Seasonal contrast of the dominant factors for spatial distribution of land surface temperature in urban areas","volume":"215","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"7769","article-title":"Relationship between urban heat island and landscape patterns: From city size and landscape composition to spatial configuration","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01675","article-title":"Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate","volume":"423","author":"Kalnay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2019.109580","article-title":"Urban Building Energy and Climate (UrBEC) simulation: Example application and field evaluation in Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong","volume":"207","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-17-0265.1","article-title":"Should Cities Embrace Their Heat Islands as Shields from Extreme Cold","volume":"57","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4072033","article-title":"The Impacts of Rapid Urbanization on the Thermal Environment: A Remote Sensing Study of Guangzhou, South China","volume":"4","author":"Xiong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1080\/10511482.2001.9521426","article-title":"Wrestling Sprawl to the Ground: Defining and Measuring an Elusive Concept","volume":"12","author":"Galster","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hous. Policy Debate"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/0042098042000309748","article-title":"Quantifying Urban Form: Compactness versus \u2018Sprawl\u2019","volume":"42","author":"Tsai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743763","DOI":"10.1080\/20964129.2020.1743763","article-title":"The compactness of spatial structure in Chinese cities: Measurement, clustering patterns and influencing factors","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecosyst. Health Sustain."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.350","article-title":"Effects of urban form on the urban heat island effect based on spatial regression model","volume":"634","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2014.01.016","article-title":"Spatial statistical analysis and simulation of the urban heat island in high-density central cities","volume":"125","author":"Chun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-9255(02)00023-9","article-title":"Evaluation of urban land-use structures with a view to sustainable development","volume":"22","author":"Thinh","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Impact Assess. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"6338","article-title":"Study on the compactness assessment model of urban spatial form","volume":"31","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Y., Shao, G., Song, X., Liu, Y., Pan, L., and Ye, H. (2017). The Relationships between Urban Form and Urban Commuting: An Empirical Study in China. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9071150"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A4014003","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000263","article-title":"Analyzing the Influence of Urban Forms on Surface Urban Heat Islands in Europe","volume":"141","author":"Schwarz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Urban Plan. Dev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4791","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04242-2","article-title":"The role of city size and urban form in the surface urban heat island","volume":"7","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"78","article-title":"Landscape shape index, as a potencial indicator of urban development in Hungary","volume":"8","author":"Gyenizse","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerri, G., Crisci, A., Messeri, A., Congedo, L., Munafo, M., and Morabito, M. (2021). Thermal Summer Diurnal Hot-Spot Analysis: The Role of Local Urban Features Layers. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13030538"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Zhou, W., Wang, J., Hu, X., and Qian, Y. (2017). Sixty-Year Changes in Residential Landscapes in Beijing: A Perspective from Both the Horizontal (2D) and Vertical (3D) Dimensions. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9100992"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, X., Yan, H., Wang, D., Zhao, Z., Zhang, G., Lin, T., and Ye, H. (2020). A Promotional Construction Approach for an Urban Three-Dimensional Compactness Model-Law-of-Gravitation-Based. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12176777"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, X., Zhang, L., and Zang, S. (2019). Examining seasonal effect of urban heat island in a coastal city. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0217850"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, T., Tang, L., Chen, H., Wang, Z., and Qiu, Q. (2017). Application of Source-Sink Landscape Influence Values to Commuter Traffic: A Case Study of Xiamen Island. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9122366"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Statistics, and National Bureau of Statistics (2019). Yearbook of Xiamen Special Economic Zone."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2012.09.001","article-title":"Xiamen","volume":"31","author":"Tang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2010\/0430","article-title":"Observed and projected climate shifts 1901-2100 depicted by world maps of the Koppen-Geiger climate classification","volume":"19","author":"Rubel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2019.106262","article-title":"A global exploration of tidal wetland creation for nature-based flood risk mitigation in coastal cities","volume":"226","author":"Temmerman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"328","article-title":"Research on the relationship between urban form and urban smog in China","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Han, F., and Bogus, S.M. (2020). Building Footprint and Height Information Extraction from Airborne LiDAR, Aerial Imagery, and Object-based Image Analysis. Construction Research Congress 2020: Computer Applications, American Society of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482865.035"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"841","article-title":"Building population mapping with aerial imagery and GIS data","volume":"13","author":"Ural","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2017.02.009","article-title":"Challenges to quantitative applications of Landsat observations for the urban thermal environment","volume":"59","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. China"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(82)90043-8","article-title":"Survey of emissivity variability in thermography of urban areas","volume":"12","author":"Artis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.003","article-title":"Land surface temperature retrieval from LANDSAT TM 5","volume":"90","author":"Sobrino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3719","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160010006971","article-title":"A mono-window algorithm for retrieving land surface temperature from Landsat TM data and its application to the Israel-Egypt border region","volume":"22","author":"Qin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810802443457","article-title":"Geographical Detectors-Based Health Risk Assessment and its Application in the Neural Tube Defects Study of the Heshun Region, China","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.08.047","article-title":"Effect of urban micro-climatic regulation ability on public building energy usage carbon emission","volume":"154","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Wang, J., Li, X., Ren, D., and Zhu, J. (2011). Geographical Detector-Based Risk Assessment of the Under-Five Mortality in the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake, China. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0021427"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Yu, L., Li, X., Zhang, C., Shi, T., Wu, X., Yang, C., Gao, W., Li, Q., and Wu, G. (2020). Exploring Annual Urban Expansions in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area: Spatiotemporal Features and Driving Factors in 1986\u20132017. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162615"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"116","article-title":"Geodetector: Principle and prospective","volume":"72","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Natural Resources and Planning (2010). Xiamen City Planning Management Technical Regulations."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.12.187","article-title":"The effect of multi-dimensional indicators on urban thermal conditions","volume":"177","author":"Alavipanah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6910","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1368099","article-title":"Assessing the relationship between sky view factor and land surface temperature to the spatial resolution","volume":"38","author":"Scarano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.10.004","article-title":"The role of urban function on road soil respiration responses","volume":"85","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.3354\/cr027253","article-title":"Intra-urban relationship between surface geometry and urban heat island: Review and new approach","volume":"27","author":"Unger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(02)00830-0","article-title":"Dispersion mechanisms in a street canyon","volume":"37","author":"Caton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1609","article-title":"Urban shading\u2014A design option for the tropics? A study in Colombo, Sri Lanka","volume":"27","author":"Emmanuel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/1352-2310(95)00033-X","article-title":"Urban nocturnal temperatures, street geometry and land use","volume":"30","author":"Eliasson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2015.03.037","article-title":"The impact of building density and building height heterogeneity on average urban albedo and street surface temperature","volume":"90","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2289","article-title":"Seasonal Dependence of the Urban Heat Island on the Street Canyon Aspect Ratio","volume":"140","author":"Theeuwes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-014-9980-9","article-title":"Interfacing the Urban Land-Atmosphere System Through Coupled Urban Canopy and Atmospheric Models","volume":"154","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3723","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5536","article-title":"Stone forest as a small-scale field model for the study of urban climate","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138147","article-title":"Scaled outdoor experimental studies of urban thermal environment in street canyon models with various aspect ratios and thermal storage","volume":"726","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oke, T.R., Mills, G., Christen, A., and Voogt, J.A. (2017). Urban Climates, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781139016476"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5625","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD026589","article-title":"On the asymmetry of the urban daily air temperature cycle","volume":"122","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2699","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-2699-2015","article-title":"The effect of radiometer placement and view on inferred directional and hemispheric radiometric temperatures of an urban canopy","volume":"8","author":"Adderley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.06.025","article-title":"Improving the estimation of urban surface emissivity based on sub-pixel classification of high resolution satellite imagery","volume":"117","author":"Mitraka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106374","article-title":"Prediction of pollution dispersion under urban heat island circulation for different atmospheric stratification","volume":"168","author":"Abbassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Build. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1067\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:34:05Z","timestamp":1760160845000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1067"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13061067"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13061067","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]]}}}