{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T11:47:23Z","timestamp":1774352843047,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]],"date-time":"2021-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41274032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41274032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41474018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41474018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41429401"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41429401"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41774019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41774019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41704011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41704011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41974007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41974007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission has measured total water storage change (TWSC) and interpreted drought patterns in an unparalleled way since 2002. Nevertheless, there are few sources that can be used to understand drought patterns prior to the GRACE era. In this study, we extended the gridded GRACE TWSC to 1993 by combining principal component analysis (PCA), least square (LS) fitting, and multiple linear regression (MLR) methods using climate variables as input drivers. We used the extended (climate-driven) TWSC to interpret drought patterns (1993\u20132019) over the Amazon basin. Results showed that, in the Amazon area with the resolution of 0.5\u00b0, GRACE, GRACE follow on, and Swarm had correlation coefficients of 0.95, 0.92, and 0.77 compared with climate-driven TWSCS, respectively. The drought patterns assessed by the climate-driven TWSC were consistent with those interpreted by the Palmer Drought Severity Index and GRACE TWSC. We also found that the 1998 and 2016 drought events in the Amazon, both induced by strong El Ni\u00f1o events, showed similar drought patterns. This study provides a new perspective for interpreting long-term drought patterns prior to the GRACE period.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13061124","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]],"date-time":"2021-03-16T21:42:41Z","timestamp":1615930961000},"page":"1124","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Drought Events over the Amazon River Basin (1993\u20132019) as Detected by the Climate-Driven Total Water Storage Change"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Kunjun","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Zhengtao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Fupeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2018.11.052","article-title":"Hydrological drought persistence and recovery over the CONUS: A mul-ti-stage framework considering water quantity and quality","volume":"150","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014016","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa5258","article-title":"Global gross primary productivity and water use efficiency changes under drought stress","volume":"12","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.11.030","article-title":"Assessment of hydrological drought and its recovery time for eight T tributaries of the Yangtze River (China) based on downscaled GRACE data","volume":"568","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecohyd.2016.01.001","article-title":"New challenges and dimensions of Ecohydrology\u2014Enhancement of catchments sustainability potential","volume":"16","author":"Zalewski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecohydrol. Hydrobiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13928","article-title":"Tipping point effect in plant-fungal interactions under severe drought causes abrupt rise in peatland ecosystem respiration","volume":"24","author":"Jassey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Global Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.233","article-title":"Incorporating vegetation dynamics noticeably improved performance of hydrological model under vegetation greening","volume":"643","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"09607","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL019920","article-title":"The gravity recovery and climate experiment: Mission overview and early results","volume":"31","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ETG3","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JB000576","article-title":"Methods for inferring regional surface-mass anomalies from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) measurements of time-variable gravity","volume":"107","author":"Swenson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersen, O.B., Seneviratne, S.I., Hinderer, J., and Viterbo, P. (2005). GRACE-derived terrestrial water storage depletion associated with the 2003 European heat wave. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023574"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frappart, F., and Ramillien, G. (2018). Monitoring Groundwater Storage Changes Using the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) Satellite Mission: A Review. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060829"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL059323","article-title":"A GRACE-based water storage deficit approach for hydrological drought characterization","volume":"41","author":"Thomas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-015-1362-y","article-title":"A quantitative approach for hydrological drought characterization in southwestern China using GRACE","volume":"24","author":"Chao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2010.12.010","article-title":"Tracking water level changes of the Amazon Basin with space-borne remote sensing and integration with large scale hydrodynamic modelling: A review","volume":"36","author":"Hall","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"096023","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.9.096023","article-title":"2010\u20132012 drought and flood events in the amazon basin inferred by grace satellite observations","volume":"9","author":"Ning","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0183.1","article-title":"Continental Runoff into the Oceans (1950\u20132008)","volume":"16","author":"Clark","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.0036","article-title":"Interactions among Amazon land use, forests and climate: Prospects for a near-term forest tipping point","volume":"363","author":"Nepstad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5412","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1232874","article-title":"The impact of deforestation on the hydrological cycle in Amazonia as observed from remote sensing","volume":"37","author":"Vergopolan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1126\/science.281.5374.237","article-title":"Primary Production of the Biosphere: Integrating Ter- restrial and Oceanic Components","volume":"281","author":"Field","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1146961","article-title":"Climate Change, Deforestation, and the Fate of the Amazon","volume":"319","author":"Malhi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-004-0049-4","article-title":"Amazonian forest dieback under climate-carbon cycle projections for the 21st century","volume":"78","author":"Cox","year":"2004","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Clim."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1991)004<0957:ADARCC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Amazonian Deforestation and Regional Climate Change","volume":"4","author":"Nobre","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2841","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-23-2841-2019","article-title":"Multi-decadal hydrologic change and variability in the Amazon River basin: Understanding terrestrial water storage variations and drought characteristics","volume":"23","author":"Suyog","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paredes-Trejo, F., Barbosa, H.A., Giovannettone, J., Kumar, T.V.L., Thakur, M.K., and Buriti, C.D.O. (2021). Long-Term Spatiotemporal Variation of Droughts in the Amazon River Basin. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13030351"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.02.005","article-title":"Interannual variability in water storage over 2003\u20132008 in the Amazon Basin from GRACE space gravimetry, in situ river level and precipitation data","volume":"114","author":"Xavier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J.L., Wilson, C.R., and Tapley, B.D. (2010). The 2009 exceptional Amazon flood and interannual terrestrial water storage change observed by GRACE. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010WR009383"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"814","article-title":"Monitoring Land Water Change in The Amazon Basin from 2002 to 2010 Using GRACE","volume":"55","author":"Feng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"199","article-title":"Combined GRACE and Meteorological and Hydrological Data to Study the Relationship between the Abnormal Change of Water Storage and Extreme Climate ENSO in The Amazon from 2010 to 2016","volume":"39","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4420","article-title":"Extreme seasonal droughts and floods in Amazonia: Causes, trends and impacts","volume":"36","author":"Espinoza","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-1385-2020","article-title":"Description of the multi-approach gravity field models from Swarm GPS data","volume":"12","author":"Visser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013007","article-title":"High-resolution CSR GRACE RL05 mascons","volume":"121","author":"Save","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.5194\/se-9-323-2018","article-title":"Time-variable gravity fields and ocean mass change from 37 months of kinematic Swarm orbits","volume":"9","author":"Kusche","year":"2018","journal-title":"Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL072564","article-title":"A global reconstruction of climate-driven subdecadal water storage variability","volume":"44","author":"Humphrey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026551","DOI":"10.1029\/2019WR026551","article-title":"Comparison of Data-Driven Techniques to Reconstruct (1992\u20132002) and Predict (2017\u20132018) GRACE-Like Gridded Total Water Storage Changes Using Climate Inputs","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"113","article-title":"Assessing objective techniques for gauge-based analyses of global daily precipitation","volume":"113","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05404","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JB006056","article-title":"2005 drought event in the Amazon River basin as measured by GRACE and estimated by climate models","volume":"114","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"D10102","article-title":"Climate prediction center global monthly soil moisture data set at 0.5\u00b0 resolution for 1948 to present","volume":"109","author":"Fan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2002)015<1609:AIISAS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An improved in situ and satellite SST analysis for climate","volume":"15","author":"Reynolds","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, A. (2011). Characteristics and trends in various forms of the Palmer Drought Severity Index during 1900. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD015541"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, M., Ries, J.C., and Tapley, B.D. (2011). Variations of the Earth\u2019s figure axis from satellite laser ranging and GRACE. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JB000850"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359","article-title":"Global Glacial Isostasy and the Surface of the Ice-Age Earth: The ICE-5G (VM2) Model and GRACE","volume":"32","author":"Peltier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1029\/2002WR001808","article-title":"Estimated accuracies of regional water storage variations inferred from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)","volume":"39","author":"Swenson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30205","DOI":"10.1029\/98JB02844","article-title":"Time variability of the earth\u2019s gravity field: Hydrological and oceanic effects and their possible detection using grace","volume":"103","author":"Wahr","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-014-9292-0","article-title":"Multivariate prediction of total water storage anomalies over West Africa from multi-satellite data","volume":"35","author":"Forootan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2609","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2004)017<2609:EOTRDO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Estimates of the regional distribution of sea level rise over the 1950\u20132000 period","volume":"17","author":"Church","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-533-2011","article-title":"Past terrestrial water storage (1980\u20132008) in the Amazon Basin reconstructed from GRACE and in situ river gauging data","volume":"15","author":"Becker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s11222-006-9438-0","article-title":"DRAM: Efficient adaptive MCMC","volume":"16","author":"Haario","year":"2006","journal-title":"Stat. Comput."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1124\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:36:33Z","timestamp":1760160993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1124"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13061124"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13061124","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]]}}}