{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T17:49:39Z","timestamp":1769276979091,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]],"date-time":"2021-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615939200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012818","name":"Comunidad de Madrid","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["H2019\/HUM-5742 AVIPES-CM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2019\/HUM-5742 AVIPES-CM"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Single point positioning (SPP) mode, related to pseudorange measurements, limits the level of accuracy to several meters in open sky and to several dozens of meters in urban canyons. This paper explores the effect of using a large number of SPP observations from low-cost global navigation system (GNSS) receivers, smartphones, and handheld GNSS units. Data segmentation and bootstrapping statistical methods were used to obtain the deviation, which can describe the accuracy of the large sample. The empirical test recording data showed that the error may achieve a sub-meter horizontal accuracy by the simple process of increasing the measurements of smartphones and handheld GNSS units. However, the drawback is the long period of time required. To reduce the satellite tracking time, a least squares solution network was applied over all the recorded data, assisted by the external geometric conditions. The final goal was to obtain the absolute positioning and associated deviations of one vertex from three or five GNSS receivers positioned on a network. The process was tested in three geodetic network examples. The results indicated that the enhanced SPP mode was able to improve its accuracy. Errors of several meters were reduced to values close to 50 cm in 25\u201337 min periods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13061149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]],"date-time":"2021-03-17T11:48:22Z","timestamp":1615981702000},"page":"1149","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["An Approach to Improving GNSS Positioning Accuracy Using Several GNSS Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1212-4292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Jes\u00fas","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartographic Engineering, Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46005 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0307-5521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mercedes","family":"Farjas-Abadia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Cartographic Engineering, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6342-9547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nieves","family":"Quesada-Olmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartographic Engineering, Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46005 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GNSS (2019). Market Report, Issue 6, European Global Navigation Satellite Systems Agency."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jahkola, O., Happonen, A., Knutas, A., and Ikonen, J. (2017, January 23\u201324). What should application developers understand about mobile phone position data. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies, Ruse, Bulgaria.","DOI":"10.1145\/3134302.3134346"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0885-4","article-title":"Characteristics of raw multi-GNSS measurement error from Google Android smart devices","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solutions"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verhagen, S., Odijk, D., Teunissen, P.J.G., and Huisman, L. (2010, January 8\u201310). Performance improvement with low-cost multi-GNSS receivers. Proceedings of the 2010 5th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technologies and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing (NAVITEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2010.5708015"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shabnam, M., Chowdhury, I.H., Tushar, Z.H., Sultana, S., and E-Haider, H. (2017, January 16\u201318). Performance evaluation of GNSS receiver in multi-constellation system. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE), Cox\u2019s Bazar, Bangladesh.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECACE.2017.7912977"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robustelli, U., Baiocchi, V., and Pugliano, G. (2019). Assessment of dual frequency GNSS observations from a Xiaomi Mi 8 android smartphone and positioning performance analysis. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8010091"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, L., Wang, F., Sang, J., Lin, X., Gong, X., and Zhang, W. (2020). Characteristics analysis of raw multi-GNSS measurement from Xiaomi Mi 8 and positioning performance improvement with L5\/E5 frequency in an urban environment. Remote. Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12040744"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Critchley-Marrows, O., Fortunato, M., and Roberts, W. (2020, April 30). Accuracy for the Masses, Real-Time Sub-Meter in a Consumer Receiver? Inside GNSS, Digital Edition March\u2013April 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.insidegnss.com."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Q., Sun, M., Zhou, C., and Zhang, P. (2019). Precise point positioning using dual-frequency GNSS observations on smartphone. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19092189"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.35784\/bud-arch.738","article-title":"The problem of GNSS positioning with measurements recorded using Android mobile devices","volume":"18","author":"Skorupa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Budownictwo i Architektura"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortunato, M., Critchley-Marrows, J., Siutkowska, M., Ivanovici, M.L., Benedetti, E., and Roberts, W. (2019, January 9\u201312). Enabling high accuracy dynamic applications in urban environments using PPP and RTK on android multi-frequency and multi-GNSS smartphones. Proceedings of the 2019 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2019.8714140"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elmezayen, A., and El-Rabbany, A. (2019). Precise point positioning using world\u2019s first dual-frequency GPS\/GALILEO smartphone. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19112593"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2019.1664944","article-title":"Multi-GNSS precise point positioning with next-generation smartphone measurements","volume":"65","author":"Aggrey","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Psychas, D., Bruno, J., Massarweh, L., and Darugna, F. (2019, January 16\u201320). Towards sub-meter positioning using android raw GNSS measurements. Proceedings of the 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.17077"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darugna, F., W\u00fcbbena, J., Ito, A., W\u00fcbbena, T., W\u00fcbbena, G., and Schmitz, M. (2019, January 16\u201320). RTK and PPP-RTK using smartphones: From short-baseline to long-baseline applications. Proceedings of the 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.17078"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wanninger, L., and He\u00dfelbarth, A. (2020). GNSS code and carrier phase observations of a Huawei P30 smartphone: Quality assessment and centimeter-accurate positioning. GPS Solutions, 24.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-020-00978-z"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hesselbarth, A., and Wanninger, L. (2020, January 23\u201324). Towards centimeter accurate positioning with smartphones. Proceedings of the 2020 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.23919\/ENC48637.2020.9317392"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mueck, M., Strinati, E.C., Kim, I.-G., Clemente, A., Dore, J.-B., De Domenico, A., Kim, T., Choi, T., Chung, H.K., and Destino, G. (2018, January 4\u20138). 5G CHAMPION\u2014Rolling out 5G in 2018. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2016.7848798"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crapart, R., Maymo-Camps, R., Vautherin, B., and Saloranta, J. (2018, January 13\u201316). 5G positioning and hybridization with GNSS observations. Proceedings of the ITSNT 2018, International Technical Symposium on Navigation and Timing, Toulouse, France.","DOI":"10.31701\/itsnt2018.10"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Destino, G., Saloranta, J., Seco-Granados, G., and Wymeersch, H. (2018, January 28\u201331). Performance analysis of hybrid 5G-GNSS localization. Proceedings of the 2018 52nd Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACSSC.2018.8645207"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mayer-Sch\u00f6nberger, V., and Cukier, K. (2013). Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McFarland, D.A., and McFarland, H.R. (2015). Big data and the danger of being precisely inaccurate. Big Data Soc.","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951715602495"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laptev, N., Zeng, K., and Zaniolo, C. (2013, January 8\u201312). Very fast estimation for result and accuracy of big data analytics: The EARL system. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 29th International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE), Brisbane, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDE.2013.6544928"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Kleiner, A., Talwalkar, A., Sarka, P., and Jordan, M. (July, January 26). The big data bootstrap. Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Machine Learning, Edinburgh, Scotland."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"44","article-title":"A bootstrap method for assessing classification accuracy and confidence for agricultural land use mapping in Canada","volume":"29","author":"Champagne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrisano, A., Maratea, A., and Gaglione, S. (2017). A resampling strategy based on bootstrap to reduce the effect of large blunders in GPS absolute positioning. J. Geod.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-017-1046-6"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Touil, K., Zribi, M., Choquel, J.B., and Benjelloun, M. (2007, January 4\u20137). Bayesian bootstrap filter for integrated GPS and dead reckoning positioning. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Vigo, Spain."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Teunissen, P.J.G. (2001, January 5\u20138). GNSS Ambiguity bootstrapping: Theory and application. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Kinematic Systems in Geodesy, Geomatics and Navigation, Banff, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-005-0481-y","article-title":"Integer aperture bootstrapping: A new GNSS ambiguity estimator with controllable fail-rate","volume":"79","author":"Teunissen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsubaie, N.M., Youssef, A.A., and El-Sheimy, N. (2017). Improving the accuracy of direct geo-referencing of smartphone-based mobile mapping systems using relative orientation and scene geometric constraints. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102237"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kromanis, R., and Liang, H. (2018, January 10\u201313). Condition assessment of structures using smartphones: A position independent multi-epoch imaging approach. Proceedings of the 9th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring Series (EWSHM), Manchester, UK."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, L., Ma, L., Wu, T., and Chen, X. (2019). Performance analysis of positioning solution using low-cost single-frequency U-blox receiver based on baseline length constraint. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194352"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Teunissen, P.J.G., Nadarajah, N., Giorgi, G., and Buist, P.J. (2011, January 20\u201323). Low-Complexity Instantaneous GNSS Attitude Determination with Multiple Low-Cost Antennas. Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.03.054","article-title":"Real-time high-rise building monitoring system using global navigation satellite system technology","volume":"123","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leick, A., Rapoport, L., and Tatarnikov, D. (2015). GPS Satellite Surveying, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119018612"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"895","article-title":"Use of a least squares with conditional equations method in positioning a tramway track in the Gdansk agglomeration","volume":"13","author":"Czaplewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. Nav. Int. J. Mar. Navig. Saf. Sea Transp."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolf, P., and Ghilani, C. (2006). Adjustment Computations Spatial Data Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470121498"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gogoi, N., Minetto, A., Linty, N., and Dovis, F. (2019). A controlled-environment quality assessment of android GNSS raw measurements. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8010005"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tavani, S., Pignalosa, A., Corradetti, A., Mercuri, M., Smeraglia, L., Riccardi, U., Seers, T., Pavlis, T., and Billi, A. (2020). Photogrammetric 3D model via smartphone GNSS sensor: Workflow, error estimate, and best practices. Remote. Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213616"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrisano, A., Del Pizzo, S., Gaglione, S., Troisi, S., and Vultaggio, M. (2018). Using local redundancy to improve GNSS absolute positioning in harsh scenario. Acta IMEKO.","DOI":"10.21014\/acta_imeko.v7i2.538"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"GSA Working Group (2018, November 08). Using GNSS Raw Measurements on Android Devices. Available online: https:\/\/www.gsa.europa.eu\/system\/files\/reports\/gnss_raw_measurement_web_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baiocchi, V., Del Pizzo, S., Pugliano, G., Onori, M., Robustelli, U., Troisi, S., Vatore, F., and Trujillo, F.J.L. (2020). Use of the sensors of a latest generation mobile phone for the three-dimensional reconstruction of an archaeological monument: The survey of the Intihuatana stone in Machu Picchu (Peru\u2019). IOP Conf. Series Mater. Sci. Eng., 949.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/949\/1\/012106"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrovski, I.G. (2014). GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou for Mobile Devices, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139565455"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzman-Acevedo, G.M., Vazquez-Becerra, G.E., Millan-Almaraz, J.R., Rodriguez-Lozoya, H.E., Reyes-Salazar, A., Gaxiola-Camacho, J.R., and Martinez-Felix, C.A. (2019). GPS, accelerometer, and smartphone fused smart sensor for SHM on real-scale bridges. Adv. Civ. Eng.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/6429430"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Li, X., Rizos, C., Ge, L., Tamura, Y., and Yoshida, A. (2005, January 24\u201326). The complementary characteristics of GPS and accelerometer in monitoring structural deformation. Proceedings of the ION 2005 National Technical Meeting, Institute of Navigation (ION), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-006-0092-2","article-title":"An integrated GPS\u2013accelerometer data processing technique for structural deformation monitoring","volume":"80","author":"Chan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3390\/s120101014","article-title":"Optimal methods of RTK-GPS\/accelerometer integration to monitor the displacement of structures","volume":"12","author":"Hwang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reuper, B., Becker, M., and Leinen, S. (2018). Benefits of multi-constellation\/multi-frequency GNSS in a tightly coupled GNSS\/IMU\/odometry integration algorithm. Sensors, 178.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093052"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Realini, E., Caldera, S., Pertusini, L., and Sampietro, D. (2017). Precise GNSS positioning using smart devices. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102434"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1149\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:37:11Z","timestamp":1760161031000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1149"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13061149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13061149","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]}}}