{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T15:17:23Z","timestamp":1777648643260,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]],"date-time":"2021-04-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JSPS grant 18H00763 (2018-20)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JSPS grant 18H00763 (2018-20)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An urban heat island (UHI) is a significant anthropogenic modification of urban land surfaces, and its geospatial pattern can increase the intensity of the heatwave effects. The complex mechanisms and interactivity of the land surface temperature in urban areas are still being examined. The urban\u2013rural gradient analysis serves as a unique natural opportunity to identify and mitigate ecological worsening. Using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), Operational Land Imager\/Thermal Infrared Sensor (OLI\/TIRS) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Land Surface Temperature (LST) data in 2000, 2010, and 2019, we examined the spatial difference in daytime and nighttime LST trends along the urban\u2013rural gradient in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Google Earth Engine (GEE) and machine learning techniques were employed to conduct the spatio-temporal analysis. The analysis results revealed that impervious surfaces (ISs) increased significantly from 564.14 km2 in 2000 to 869.35 km2 in 2019 in Greater Cairo. The size, aggregation, and complexity of patches of ISs, green space (GS), and bare land (BL) showed a strong correlation with the mean LST. The average urban\u2013rural difference in mean LST was \u22123.59 \u00b0C in the daytime and 2.33 \u00b0C in the nighttime. In the daytime, Greater Cairo displayed the cool island effect, but in the nighttime, it showed the urban heat island effect. We estimated that dynamic human activities based on the urban structure are causing the spatial difference in the LST distribution between the day and night. The urban\u2013rural gradient analysis indicated that this phenomenon became stronger from 2000 to 2019. Considering the drastic changes in the spatial patterns and the density of IS, GS, and BL, urban planners are urged to take immediate steps to mitigate increasing surface UHI; otherwise, urban dwellers might suffer from the severe effects of heatwaves.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071396","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]],"date-time":"2021-04-05T11:48:29Z","timestamp":1617623309000},"page":"1396","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Urban Heat Island Formation in Greater Cairo: Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Daytime and Nighttime Land Surface Temperatures along the Urban\u2013Rural Gradient"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3490-7474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darshana","family":"Athukorala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4397-6882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuji","family":"Murayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111739","article-title":"A systematic review and assessment of algorithms to detect, characterize, and monitor urban land change","volume":"242","author":"Reba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-016-0341-6","article-title":"Quantifying landscape pattern and ecosystem service value changes in four rapidly urbanizing hill stations of Southeast Asia","volume":"31","author":"Estoque","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-009-9444-7","article-title":"Urban sustainability: An inevitable goal of landscape research","volume":"25","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121537","article-title":"Study on sustainable urbanization literature based on Web of Science, scopus, and China national knowledge infrastructure: A scientometric analysis in CiteSpace","volume":"264","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., and Meyer, L.A. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, IPCC. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111477","article-title":"Urbanization and climate change jointly shift land surface phenology in the northern mid-latitude large cities","volume":"236","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcotullio, P.J., Ke\u00dfler, C., and Fekete, B.M. (2021). The future urban heatwave challenge in Africa: Exploratory analysis. Glob. Environ. Chang., 66.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2020.102190"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.12.117","article-title":"Urbanization, energy consumption and emissions in the Indian context A review","volume":"71","author":"Franco","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.06.021","article-title":"Monitoring two decades of urbanization in the Poyang Lake area, China through spectral unmixing","volume":"117","author":"Michishita","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1150195","article-title":"Global change and the ecology of cities","volume":"319","author":"Grimm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.09.106","article-title":"Urbanization-related changes in soil PAHs and potential health risks of emission sources in a township in Southern Jiangsu, China","volume":"575","author":"Cao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.10.195","article-title":"Effects of landscape composition and pattern on land surface temperature: An urban heat island study in the megacities of Southeast Asia","volume":"577","author":"Estoque","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2017.05.005","article-title":"An urban heat island study in Nanchang City, China based on land surface temperature and social-ecological variables","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howard, L. (2012). The Climate of London, Deduced from Meteorological Observations, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139226899"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-6981(73)90140-6","article-title":"City size and the urban heat island","volume":"7","author":"OKE","year":"1973","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.09.008","article-title":"Monitoring surface urban heat island formation in a tropical mountain city using Landsat data (1987\u20132015)","volume":"133","author":"Estoque","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.209","article-title":"Science of the Total Environment Patterns of land change and their potential impacts on land surface temperature change in Yangon, Myanmar","volume":"643","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"32","article-title":"Urban Climate Estimation of long term low resolution surface urban heat island intensities for tropical cities using MODIS remote sensing data","volume":"17","author":"Karam","year":"2016","journal-title":"UCLIM"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110584","article-title":"Localized synergies between heat waves and urban heat islands: Implications on human thermal comfort and urban heat management","volume":"193","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13462","article-title":"Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands","volume":"511","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.02.003","article-title":"Generating daily land surface temperature at Landsat resolution by fusing Landsat and MODIS data","volume":"145","author":"Weng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3145","DOI":"10.1080\/014311697217026","article-title":"A verification of the \u201ctriangle\u201d method for obtaining surface soil water content and energy fluxes from remote measurements of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and surface e","volume":"18","author":"Gillies","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.03.009","article-title":"Does spatial configuration matter? Understanding the effects of land cover pattern on land surface temperature in urban landscapes","volume":"102","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.050","article-title":"Temporal and spatial variation relationship and influence factors on surface urban heat island and ozone pollution in the Yangtze River Delta, China","volume":"631\u2013632","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2017.09.026","article-title":"Urban heat island experience, control measures and health impact: A survey among working community in the city of Kuala Lumpur","volume":"35","author":"Wong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rockl\u00f6v, J., Forsberg, B., Ebi, K., and Bellander, T. (2014). Susceptibility to mortality related to temperature and heat and cold wave duration in the population of Stockholm County, Sweden. Glob. Health Action, 7.","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v7.22737"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123767","article-title":"Optimizing local climate zones to mitigate urban heat island effect in human settlements","volume":"275","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102443","article-title":"Impact of urban morphology and landscape characteristics on spatiotemporal heterogeneity of land surface temperature","volume":"63","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2020.100700","article-title":"Investigating the diversity of land surface temperature characteristics in different scale cities based on local climate zones","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL081816","article-title":"Greening in Rural Areas Increases the Surface Urban Heat Island Intensity","volume":"46","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM-2176.1","article-title":"Pseudovertical temperature profiles and the urban heat island measured by a temperature datalogger network in Phoenix, Arizona","volume":"44","author":"Fast","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1364","article-title":"Temporal dynamics of the urban heat island of Singapore","volume":"2260","author":"Chow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.02.087","article-title":"Less sensitive of urban surface to climate variability than rural in Northern China","volume":"628\u2013629","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.02.074","article-title":"Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect in a highly populated urban agglomeration area in East China","volume":"628\u2013629","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.217","article-title":"Temporal trends of surface urban heat islands and associated determinants in major Chinese cities","volume":"609","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.10.008","article-title":"Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA","volume":"114","author":"Imhoff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112039","article-title":"Satellite identification of atmospheric-surface-subsurface urban heat islands under clear sky","volume":"250","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.11.360","article-title":"A new method to quantify surface urban heat island intensity","volume":"624","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.03.043","article-title":"Effects of the spatial configuration of trees on urban heat mitigation: A comparative study","volume":"195","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.11.027","article-title":"Urban thermal environment dynamics and associated landscape pattern factors: A case study in the Beijing metropolitan region","volume":"173","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2014.04.018","article-title":"Effects of spatial pattern of greenspace on urban cooling in a large metropolitan area of eastern China","volume":"128","author":"Kong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/11\/7\/074009","article-title":"Climate\u2014Vegetation control on the diurnal and seasonal variations of surface urban heat islands in China","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, D., Li, D., Sun, G., Zhang, L., Liu, Y., and Hao, L. (2016). Contrasting effects of urbanization and agriculture on surface temperature in eastern China. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 9597\u20139606.","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025359"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.06.229","article-title":"The surface urban heat island response to urban expansion: A panel analysis for the conterminous United States","volume":"605\u2013606","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.01.060","article-title":"Analyzing the heat island magnitude and characteristics in one hundred Asian and Australian cities and regions","volume":"512\u2013513","author":"Santamouris","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, S., Piao, S., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., and Ottle, C. (2012). Surface Urban Heat Island Across 419 Global Big Cities. Environ. Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1021\/es301811b"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.03.008","article-title":"MODIS detected surface urban heat islands and sinks: Global locations and controls","volume":"134","author":"Clinton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scott Krayenhoff, E., and Voogt, J.A. (2016). Daytime thermal anisotropy of urban neighbourhoods: Morphological causation. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020108"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-11-00019.1","article-title":"Local climate zones for urban temperature studies","volume":"93","author":"Stewart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2021.102818","article-title":"Understanding land surface temperature impact factors based on local climate zones","volume":"69","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos5040755","article-title":"Local climate classification and Dublin\u2019s urban heat island","volume":"5","author":"Alexander","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2020.126784","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns of vegetation phenology along the urban\u2014Rural gradient in Coastal Dalian, China","volume":"54","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.09.003","article-title":"Variability in annual temperature cycle in the urban areas of the United States as revealed by MODIS imagery","volume":"146","author":"Fu","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Athukorala, D., and Murayama, Y. (2020). Spatial Variation of Land Use\/Cover Composition and Impact on Surface Urban Heat Island in a Tropical Sub-Saharan City of Accra, Ghana. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12197953"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s11252-007-0020-0","article-title":"Assessing the effects of land use and land cover patterns on thermal conditions using landscape metrics in city of Indianapolis, United States","volume":"10","author":"Weng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Urban Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-013-9868-y","article-title":"The impact of distinct anthropogenic and vegetation features on urban warming","volume":"28","author":"Myint","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00079-8","article-title":"Thermal remote sensing of urban climates","volume":"86","author":"Voogt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, L., Weng, Q., Guo, H., Li, Q., and Hui, W. (2020). Spatiotemporal Variation of Surface Urban Heat Islands in Relation to Land Cover Composition and Configuration: A Multi-Scale Case Study of Xi\u2019an, China. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172713"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2019.04.003","article-title":"Quantifying how landscape composition and configuration affect urban land surface temperatures using machine learning and neutral landscapes","volume":"76","author":"Osborne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-012-9833-1","article-title":"Landscape configuration and urban heat island effects: Assessing the relationship between landscape characteristics and land surface temperature in Phoenix, Arizona","volume":"28","author":"Connors","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terfa, B.K., Chen, N., Zhang, X., and Niyogi, D. (2020). Spatial configuration and extent explains the urban heat mitigation potential due to green spaces: Analysis over Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182876"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"100266","article-title":"An assessment of the vegetation cover change impact on rainfall and land surface temperature using remote sensing in a subtropical climate, Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Nega","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2020.103989","article-title":"Evidence of urban heat island impacts on the vegetation growing season length in a tropical city","volume":"206","author":"Kabano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pattern and Trend of Night Land Surface Temperature in Africa","volume":"9","author":"McNeil","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2014.10.011","article-title":"Change detection of urban heat islands and some related parameters using multi-temporal Landsat images; a case study for Cairo city, Egypt","volume":"10","author":"Effat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"311","article-title":"Monitoring and assessment of urban heat islands over the Southern region of Cairo Governorate, Egypt","volume":"21","author":"Amany","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Sp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2008). The State of African Cities. 2008. A Framework for Addressing Urban Challenges in Africa, UN-HABITAT."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102585","article-title":"Balancing conflicting mitigation and adaptation behaviours of urban residents under climate change and the urban heat island effect","volume":"65","author":"Kondo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monteiro, F.F., Gon\u00e7alves, W.A., Andrade, L.D.M.B., Villavicencio, L.M.M., and dos Santos Silva, C.M. (2021). Assessment of Urban Heat Islands in Brazil based on MODIS remote sensing data. Urban Clim., 35.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2020.100726"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2020.100747","article-title":"Is Urban Heat Island intensity higher during hot spells and heat waves (Dijon, France, 2014\u20132019)?","volume":"35","author":"Richard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9980","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL066534","article-title":"Urban climate modifications in hot desert cities: The role of land cover, local climate, and seasonality","volume":"42","author":"Lazzarini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahraiyni, H.T., Sodoudi, S., El-zafarany, A., Abou, T., and Seoud, E. (2016). A Comprehensive Statistical Study on Daytime Surface Urban Heat Island during Summer in Urban Areas, Case Study: Cairo and Its New Towns. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8080643"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3206","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3661","article-title":"Some aspects of the urban climates of Greater Cairo Region, Egypt","volume":"3216","author":"Robaa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2021, April 04). The World\u2019s Cities in 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/development\/desa\/pd\/search\/node\/the%20world%20cities%20in%202018."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2005.01.008","article-title":"Changes in urban built-up surface and population distribution patterns during 1986-1999: A case study of Cairo, Egypt","volume":"29","author":"Yin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2021, February 23). Nile Basin Climate Zones\u2014Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas. Available online: https:\/\/atlas.nilebasin.org\/treatise\/nile-basin-climate-zones\/."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2020, August 11). Maps and Educational Software. Available online: http:\/\/www.yourchildlearns.com\/."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2020, August 11). DIVA-GIS. Available online: https:\/\/www.diva-gis.org\/."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2020, August 11). Google Earth Engine. Available online: https:\/\/earthengine.google.com\/."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2020, August 12). R: The R Project for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802244268","article-title":"Hybrid classification of Landsat data and GIS for land use\/cover change analysis of the Bindura district, Zimbabwe","volume":"30","author":"Kamusoko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.3906\/elk-1705-256","article-title":"A new method based on pixel density in salt and pepper noise removal","volume":"26","author":"Erkan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Turk. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"3","article-title":"Image classification techniques in mapping urban landscape: A case study of Tsukuba city using AVNIR-2 sensor data","volume":"3","author":"Thapa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tsukuba Geoenviron. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.07.003","article-title":"Exploring indicators for quantifying surface urban heat islands of European cities with MODIS land surface temperatures","volume":"115","author":"Schwarz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.02.007","article-title":"Estimation of evaporative fraction from a combination of day and night land surface temperatures and NDVI: A new method to determine the Priestley-Taylor parameter","volume":"102","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, M., and Dickinson, R.E. (2010). Land surface skin temperature climatology: Benefitting from the strengths of satellite observations. Environ. Res. Lett., 5.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/5\/4\/044004"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2021, February 10). LP DAAC\u2014MODIS Overview, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/data\/get-started-data\/collection-overview\/missions\/modis-overview\/."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2020, August 12). MOD11A1.006 Terra Land Surface Temperature and Emissivity Daily Global 1 km. Available online: https:\/\/developers.google.com\/earth-engine\/datasets\/catalog\/MODIS_006_MOD11A1."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2020, August 12). Image Collection Reductions. Available online: https:\/\/developers.google.com\/earth-engine\/reducers_image_collection."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2021, February 10). LP DAAC Data User Resources\/ArcGIS MODIS Python Toolbox, Available online: https:\/\/git.earthdata.nasa.gov\/projects\/LPDUR\/repos\/arcgis-modis-python-toolbox\/browse."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"van Hove, L.W.A., Steeneveld, G.J., Jacobs, C.M.J., Heusinkveld, B.G., Elbers, J.A., Moors, E.J., and Holtslag, A.A.M. (2011). Exploring the Urban Heat Island Intensity of Dutch Cities: Assessment Based on a Literature Review, Recent Meteorologic, Alterra."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.4","article-title":"WorldPop, open data for spatial demography","volume":"4","author":"Tatem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W2-117-2017","article-title":"High resolution global gridded data for use in population studies","volume":"42","author":"Lloyd","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"(2021, February 17). WorldPop. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldpop.org\/."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111353","article-title":"A new ranking of the world\u2019s largest cities\u2014Do administrative units obscure morphological realities?","volume":"232","author":"Weigand","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.12.276","article-title":"Improved population mapping for China using remotely sensed and points-of-interest data within a random forests model","volume":"658","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15218-8","article-title":"Heat health risk assessment in Philippine cities using remotely sensed data and social-ecological indicators","volume":"11","author":"Estoque","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Liu, J., and Bu, Y. (2021). Quantitative Analysis of Spatial Heterogeneity and Driving Forces of the Thermal Environment in Urban Built-up Areas: A Case Study in Xi\u2019 an, China. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13041870"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"(2021, February 17). WorldPop: About WorldPop. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldpop.org\/about."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2020.126719","article-title":"Detecting Cooling Effect of Landscape from Composition and Configuration: An Urban Heat Island Study on Hangzhou","volume":"53","author":"Hou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2017.02.009","article-title":"On the association between land system architecture and land surface temperatures: Evidence from a Desert Metropolis\u2014Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A","volume":"163","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"McGarigal, K. (2015). Fragstats."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"237","article-title":"The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences Temporal detection and prediction of agricultural land consumption by urbanization using remote sensing","volume":"22","author":"Rady","year":"2019","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Sp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Athukorala, D., Estoque, R.C., Murayama, Y., and Matsushita, B. (2021). Impacts of urbanization on the Muthurajawela marsh and Negombo lagoon, Sri Lanka: Implications for landscape planning towards a sustainable urban wetland ecosystem. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13020316"},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"(2012). World Urbanization Prospects, The 2011 Revision, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Popolation Division, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2019.100545","article-title":"Simulating urban land use and cover dynamics using cellular automata and Markov chain approach in Addis Ababa and the surrounding","volume":"31","author":"Mohamed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"229","article-title":"Urban growth dynamics of an Indian metropolitan using CA Markov and Logistic Regression","volume":"21","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Sp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2016.04.005","article-title":"Simulating the spatial dynamics of urban growth with an integrated modeling approach: A case study of Foshan, China","volume":"353","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Modell."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"The Strategic Urban Development Master Plan Study for a Sustainable Development of the Greater Cairo Region in the Arab Republic of Egypt, General Organization for Physical Planning, Greater Cairo Region Urban Planning Center. Final Report."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"(2021, February 22). Climate Change Adaptation And Urban Resilience Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas. Available online: http:\/\/www.egypt-urban.net\/climate-change-adaptation-and-urban-resilience\/."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Strategic Urban Development Plan for Greater Cairo Region (2021, April 04). UN-HABITAT. Available online: https:\/\/mirror.unhabitat.org\/content.asp?cid=7120&catid=192&typeid=13."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hbrcj.2014.10.002","article-title":"Cool city as a sustainable example of heat island management case study of the coolest city in the world","volume":"12","author":"Rehan","year":"2016","journal-title":"HBRC J."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Town, B., Tarawally, M., Xu, W., Hou, W., and Mushore, T.D. (2018). Comparative Analysis of Responses of Land Surface Temperature to Long-Term Land Use\/Cover Changes between a Coastal and Inland City: A Case of Freetown and Bo Town in Sierra Leone. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010112"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2015.09.001","article-title":"Spatial variation of the daytime Surface Urban Cool Island during the dry season in Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, from Landsat 8","volume":"14","author":"Rasul","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haashemi, S., Weng, Q., Darvishi, A., and Alavipanah, S.K. (2016). Seasonal variations of the surface urban heat Island in a semi-arid city. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040352"},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"(2008). USA Environmental Protection Agency Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Green Roofs. Heat Isl. Reduct. Act., 1\u201323."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3554","article-title":"The impact of impervious surface development on land surface temperature in a subtropical city: Xiamen, China","volume":"1883","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.005","article-title":"Estimation of land surface temperature-vegetation abundance relationship for urban heat island studies","volume":"89","author":"Weng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-012-9731-6","article-title":"Spatial pattern of greenspace affects land surface temperature: Evidence from the heavily urbanized Beijing metropolitan area, China","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/7\/1396\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:26:20Z","timestamp":1760361980000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/7\/1396"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13071396"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13071396","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,5]]}}}