{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T06:55:17Z","timestamp":1775112917685,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,12]],"date-time":"2021-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618185600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014772","name":"Colorado Department of Transportation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20-HAA-ZH-03024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20-HAA-ZH-03024"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014772","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014772","name":"Colorado Department of Transportation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17-HAA-ZH-00060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17-HAA-ZH-00060"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014772","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry provide high quality point cloud data that can be used for rock slope monitoring, their increased use has overwhelmed current data analysis methodologies. Accordingly, point cloud processing workflows have previously been developed to automate many processes, including point cloud alignment, generation of change maps and clustering. However, for more specialized rock slope analyses (e.g., generating a rockfall database), the creation of more specialized processing routines and algorithms is necessary. More specialized algorithms include the reconstruction of rockfall volumes from clusters and points and automatic classification of those volumes are both processing steps required to automate the generation of a rockfall database. We propose a workflow that can automate all steps of the point cloud processing workflow. In this study, we detail adaptions to commonly used algorithms for rockfall monitoring use cases, such as Multiscale Model to Model Cloud Comparison (M3C2). This workflow details the entire processing pipeline for rockfall database generation using terrestrial laser scanning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,12]],"date-time":"2021-04-12T11:05:06Z","timestamp":1618225506000},"page":"1479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Development of Improved Semi-Automated Processing Algorithms for the Creation of Rockfall Databases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Heather","family":"Schovanec","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, 1516 Illinois St., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA"}]},{"given":"Gabriel","family":"Walton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, 1516 Illinois St., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6036-0919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan","family":"Kromer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, 1516 Illinois St., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Malsam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, 1516 Illinois St., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2017.04.007","article-title":"Review of Earth science research using terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"169","author":"Telling","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2008.07.002","article-title":"Assessing the applicability of terrestrial laser scanning for spatial snow depth measurements","volume":"54","author":"Prokop","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2004.03.007","article-title":"Land-based remote sensing of snow for the validation of a snow transport model","volume":"39","author":"Corripio","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.3189\/2013JoG12J154","article-title":"Lidar measurement of snow depth: A review","volume":"59","author":"Deems","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosser, N.J., Petley, D., Lim, M., Dunning, S., and Allison, R.J. (2005). Terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring the process of hard rock coastal cliff erosion. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol., 38.","DOI":"10.1144\/1470-9236\/05-008"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.015","article-title":"Improving particulate carbon loss estimates in eroding peatlands through the use of terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"179","author":"Grayson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1026","article-title":"Use of a three-dimensional laser scanner to digitally capture the topography of sand dunes in high spatial resolution","volume":"29","author":"Nagihara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"325","article-title":"Applications of terrestrial laser scanning for tunnels: A review","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9634-2","article-title":"Use of LIDAR in landslide investigations: A review","volume":"61","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-11-829-2011","article-title":"Rockfall monitoring by Terrestrial Laser Scanning\u2014Case study of the basaltic rock face at Castellfollit de la Roca (Catalonia, Spain)","volume":"11","author":"Vilaplana","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kromer, R., Walton, G., Gray, B., Lato, M., and Group, R. (2019). Development and optimization of an automated fixed-location time lapse photogrammetric rock slope monitoring system. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161890"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1003-2009","article-title":"Characterization and monitoring of the \u00c5knes rockslide using terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"9","author":"Oppikofer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12103","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70912103","article-title":"To fill or not to fill: Sensitivity analysis of the influence of resolution and hole filling on point cloud surface modeling and individual rockfall event detection","volume":"7","author":"Olsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, M., Petley, D.N., Rosser, N.J., Allison, R.J., Long, A.J., and Pybus, D. (2005). Combined digital photogrammetry and time-of-flight laser scanning for monitoring cliff evolution. Photogramm. Rec., 20109\u201320129.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2005.00315.x"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2010.03.016","article-title":"Detection and spatial prediction of rockfalls by means of terrestrial laser scanner monitoring","volume":"119","author":"Calvet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1139\/t98-106","article-title":"Magnitude and frequency of rock falls and rock slides along the main transportation corridors of southwestern British Columbia","volume":"36","author":"Hungr","year":"1999","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2007.03.020","article-title":"Magnitude\u2013frequency relationships of debris flows and debris avalanches in relation to slope relief","volume":"96","author":"Hungr","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0801-3","article-title":"Effects of sampling interval on the frequency\u2014Magnitude relationship of rockfalls detected from terrestrial laser scanning using semi-automated methods","volume":"14","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2012.07.001","article-title":"Magnitude\u2013frequency relation for rockfall scars using a Terrestrial Laser Scanner","volume":"145\u2013146","author":"Santana","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2773","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4929","article-title":"Emergent characteristics of rockfall inventories captured at a regional scale","volume":"45","author":"Benjamin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2745","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-19-2745-2019","article-title":"3-Dimensional Rockfall Shape Back-Analysis: Methods and Implications","volume":"19","author":"Bonneau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.07.005","article-title":"Forensic analysis of rockfall scars","volume":"295","author":"Rosser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-5-293-2017","article-title":"Automated Terrestrial Laser Scanning with Near Real-Time Change Detection-Monitoring of the S\u00e9chilienne Landslide","volume":"5","author":"Kromer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-6-101-2018","article-title":"Optimising 4-D surface change detection: An approach for capturing rockfall magnitude\u2013frequency","volume":"6","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2240","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4178","article-title":"Time lapse structure-from-motion photogrammetry for continuous geomorphic monitoring","volume":"42","author":"Eltner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.05.012","article-title":"Identifying rock slope failure precursors using LiDAR for transportation corridor hazard management","volume":"195","author":"Kromer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"F04014","article-title":"Patterns of precursory rockfall prior to slope failure","volume":"112","author":"Rosser","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2016-0178","article-title":"Managing rockfall risk through baseline monitoring of precursors using a terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"54","author":"Kromer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3192","article-title":"Progressive failure of sheeted rock slopes: The 2009-2010 Rhombus Wall rock falls in Yosemite Valley, California, USA","volume":"37","author":"Stock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-013-0442-0","article-title":"Spatio-temporal analysis of rockfall pre-failure deformation using Terrestrial LiDAR","volume":"11","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-1953-2014","article-title":"Statistical correlation between meteorological and rockfall databases","volume":"14","author":"Delonca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-16-719-2016","article-title":"Influence of meteorological factors on rockfall occurrence in a middle mountain limestone cliff","volume":"16","author":"Hantz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(98)00116-0","article-title":"Rockfall activity from an alpine cliff during thawing periods","volume":"28","author":"Matsuoka","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3290010309","article-title":"Rockfalls and rockfall inventory data: Some observations from surprise valley, Jasper National Park, Canada","volume":"1","author":"Luckman","year":"1976","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Pierson, L.A., and Vickle, R.V. (2020, February 01). Rockfall Hazard Rating System: Participants\u2019 Manual. Available online: https:\/\/trid.trb.org\/view\/459774."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Pierson, L.A., Davis, S.A., and van Vickle, R. (2020, February 01). Rockfall Hazard Rating System: Implementation Manual. Available online: https:\/\/trid.trb.org\/view\/361735."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-13-1643-2013","article-title":"Comparison between qualitative rockfall risk rating systems for a road affected by high traffic intensity","volume":"13","author":"Budetta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2008.08.009","article-title":"Modification and statistical analysis of the Colorado Rockfall Hazard Rating System","volume":"104","author":"Santi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-002-0035-z","article-title":"Rockfall Hazard Analysis for Hong Kong Based on Rockfall Inventory","volume":"36","author":"Chau","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Engng"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrea, D., Abell\u00e1n, A., Derron, M.-H., and Jaboyedoff, M. (2015). Automatic Rockfalls Volume Estimation Based on Terrestrial Laser Scanning Data. Engineering Geology for Society and Territory\u2014Volume 2, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09057-3_68"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Williams, J. (2017). Insights into Rockfall from Constant 4D Monitoring, Durham University."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1109\/34.121791","article-title":"A method for registration of 3-D shapes","volume":"14","author":"Besl","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.04.009","article-title":"Accurate 3D comparison of complex topography with terrestrial laser scanner: Application to the Rangitikei canyon (N-Z)","volume":"82","author":"Lague","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DiFrancesco, P.-M., Bonneau, D., and Hutchinson, D.J. (2020). The Implications of M3C2 Projection Diameter on 3D Semi-Automated Rockfall Extraction from Sequential Terrestrial Laser Scanning Point Clouds. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12111885"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonneau, D., Difrancesco, P.-M., and Hutchinson, D. (2019). Surface Reconstruction for Three-Dimensional Rockfall Volumetric Analysis. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8120548"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13029","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013029","article-title":"A 4D Filtering and Calibration Technique for Small-Scale Point Cloud Change Detection with a Terrestrial Laser Scanner","volume":"7","author":"Kromer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edelsbrunner, H., and M\u00fccke, E.P. (1992, January 19\u201320). Three-dimensional alpha shapes. Proceedings of the 1992 Workshop on Volume Visualization, VVS 1992, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/147130.147153"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amenta, N., Choi, S., and Kolluri, R.K. (2001, January 4\u20138). The power crust. Proceedings of the Symposium on Solid Modeling and Applications, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/376957.376986"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-555X(94)90024-8","article-title":"Geological hazards, vulnerability, and risk assessment using GIS: Model for Glenwood Springs, Colorado","volume":"10","author":"Wohl","year":"1994","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Kirkham, R.M., Streufert, R.K., Cappa, J.A., Shaw, C.A., Allen, J.L., and Schroeder, T.J.I. (2020, March 04). Geologic Map of the Glenwood Springs Quadrangle, Garfield County, Colorado, Available online: https:\/\/ngmdb.usgs.gov\/Prodesc\/proddesc_94610.htm."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3493","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning of rock slope instabilities","volume":"39","author":"Oppikofer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2008.08.005","article-title":"Towards 3D Point cloud based object maps for household environments","volume":"56","author":"Rusu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40677-016-0060-y","article-title":"UAV- based Photogrammetry and Geocomputing for Hazards and Disaster Risk Monitoring\u2014A Review","volume":"3","author":"Gomez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geoenviron. Disasters"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, L., Chen, S., Liu, X., Xu, H., Wu, Y., Li, M., and Chen, Y. (2018). Registration of Laser Scanning Point Clouds: A Review. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051641"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, Y. (October, January 27). Intrinsic shape signatures: A shape descriptor for 3D object recognition. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops, ICCV Workshops, Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW.2009.5457637"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusu, R., Blodow, N., and Beetz, M. (2009, January 12\u201317). Fast Point Feature Histograms (FPFH) for 3D registration. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Kobe, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2009.5152473"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2015.2432331","article-title":"Registration with the Point Cloud Library: A Modular Framework for Aligning in 3-D","volume":"22","author":"Holz","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Chen, Y., and Medioni, G. (1991, January 9\u201311). Object modeling by registration of multiple range images. Proceedings of the 1991 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Sacramento, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1145\/358669.358692","article-title":"Random sample consensus: A paradigm for model fitting with applications to image analysis and automated cartography","volume":"24","author":"Fischler","year":"1981","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Rusinkiewicz, S., and Levoy, M. (June, January 28). Efficient variants of the ICP algorithm. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on 3-D Digital Imaging and Modeling, Quebec City, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Liang, B., Yang, J., Li, S., and He, J. (2017). An Iterative Closest Points Algorithm for Registration of 3D Laser Scanner Point Clouds with Geometric Features. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081862"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Pulli, K. (1999, January 4\u20138). Multiview registration for large data sets. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on 3-D Digital Imaging and Modeling, Ottawa, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-13408-1_21","article-title":"Relative Motion Threshold for Rejection in ICP Registration","volume":"62","author":"Pomerleau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Springer Tracts Adv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weidner, L., Walton, G., and Kromer, R. (2019). Classification methods for point clouds in rock slope monitoring: A novel machine learning approach and comparative analysis. Eng. Geol., 263.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2019.105326"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Girardeau-Montaut, D., Roux, M., Marc, R., and Thibault, G. (2005, January 12\u201314). Change detection on points cloud data acquired with a ground laser scanner. Proceedings of the ISPRS WG III\/3, III\/4, V\/3 Workshop \u201cLaser scanning 2005\u201d, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Guerin, A., Rosetti, J.-P., Hantz, D., and Jaboyedoff, M. (2013, January 14\u201316). Estimating rock fall frequency in a limestone cliff using LIDAR measurements. Proceedings of the International Conference on Landslide Risk, Tabarka, Tunisia. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/259873223_Estimating_rock_fall_frequency_in_a_limestone_cliff_using_LIDAR_measurements."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"95","article-title":"Rockfall detection from terrestrial lidar point clouds: A clustering approach using R","volume":"8","author":"Tonini","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Ester, M., Ester, M., Kriegel, H.-P., Sander, J., and Xu, X. (1996, January 2\u20134). A density-based algorithm for discovering clusters in large spatial databases with noise. Proceedings of the KDD\u201996: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Portland, OR, USA. Available online: http:\/\/citeseer.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.121.9220."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collett, D. (2002). Modelling Binary Data, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b16654"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"The Mathworks Inc. (2020, February 26). FitGLM. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/stats\/fitglm.html."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1145\/212094.212114","article-title":"Overfitting and Undercomputing in Machine Learning","volume":"27","author":"Dietterich","year":"1995","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"The MathWorks Inc. (2020, February 26). TreeBagger. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/stats\/treebagger.html."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Sheridan, D.M., Reed, J.C., and Bryant, B. (2021, February 27). Geologic Map of the Evergreen Quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey 1972, Available online: https:\/\/ngmdb.usgs.gov\/Prodesc\/proddesc_9606.htm."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Sheridan, D.M., and Marsh, S.P. (2020, January 06). Geologic Map of the Squaw Pass quadrangle, Clear Creek, Jefferson, and Gilpin Counties, Colorado, Available online: https:\/\/ngmdb.usgs.gov\/ngm-bin\/pdp\/zui_viewer.pl?id=15298."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/8\/1479\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:26:53Z","timestamp":1760362013000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/8\/1479"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,12]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13081479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13081479","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,12]]}}}