{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]],"date-time":"2026-02-21T01:10:11Z","timestamp":1771636211972,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]],"date-time":"2021-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Floods are frequent hydro-meteorological hazards which cause losses in many parts of the world. In hilly and mountainous environments, floods often contain sediments which are derived from mass movements and soil erosion. The deposited sediments cause significant direct damage, and indirect costs of clean-up and sediment removal. The quantification of these sediment-related costs is still a major challenge and few multi-hazard risk studies take this into account. This research is an attempt to quantify sediment deposition caused by extreme weather events in tropical regions. The research was carried out on the heavily forested volcanic island of Dominica, which was impacted by Hurricane Maria in September 2017. The intense rainfall caused soil erosion, landslides, debris flows, and flash floods resulting in a massive amount of sediments being deposited in the river channels and alluvial fan, where most settlements are located. The overall damages and losses were approximately USD 1.3 billion, USD 92 million of which relates to the cost for removing sediments. The deposition height and extent were determined by calculating the difference in elevation using pre- and post-event Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) data and additional Light Detection and Raging (LiDAR) data. This provided deposition volumes of approximately 41 and 21 (103 m3) for the two study sites. For verification, the maximum flood level was simulated using trend interpolation of the flood margins and the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) was subtracted from it to obtain flooding depth, which indicates the maximum deposition height. The sediment deposition height was also measured in the field for a number of points for verification. The methods were applied in two sites and the results were compared. We investigated the strengths and weaknesses of direct sediment observations, and analyzed the uncertainty of sediment volume estimates by DTM\/DSM differencing. The study concludes that the use of pre- and post-event UAV data in heavily vegetated tropical areas leads to a high level of uncertainty in the estimated volume of sediments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13122391","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]],"date-time":"2021-06-18T11:19:20Z","timestamp":1624015160000},"page":"2391","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Quantifying Sediment Deposition Volume in Vegetated Areas with UAV Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4824-9203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sobhan","family":"Emtehani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Jetten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2992-902X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cees","family":"van Westen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6613-703X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dhruba Pikha","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Vos, F., Rodr\u00edguez, J., Below, R., and Guha-Sapir, D. (2010). Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2009: The Numbers and Trends, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Guha-Sapir, D. (2017). EM-DAT: The Emergency Events Database, Universite catholique de Louvain (UCL)\u2014CRED."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1080\/02626660009492334","article-title":"Development of flood hazard maps of Bangladesh using NOAA-AVHRR images with GIS","volume":"45","author":"Islam","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2979","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2010.177","article-title":"Uncertainty in urban flood damage assessment due to urban drainage modelling and depth-damage curve estimation","volume":"61","author":"Freni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2011.555836","article-title":"Flood management and a GIS modelling method to assess flood-hazard areas\u2014A case study","volume":"56","author":"Kourgialas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4067","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9947","article-title":"Advances in pan-European flood hazard mapping","volume":"28","author":"Alfieri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-1361-2014","article-title":"Flood risk assessment: Concepts, modelling, applications","volume":"14","author":"Tsakiris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kelman, I. (2003). Physical Flood Vulnerability of Residential Properties in Coastal, Eastern England. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge]."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-4-153-2004","article-title":"Estimation uncertainty of direct monetary flood damage to buildings","volume":"4","author":"Merz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"wpt2006022","DOI":"10.2166\/wpt.2006.022","article-title":"Flood-damage curves: Methodological development for the Brazilian context","volume":"1","author":"Nascimento","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Pract. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.02.138","article-title":"The effect of damage functions on urban flood damage appraisal","volume":"70","author":"Notaro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Huizinga, J., de Moel, H., and Szewczyk, W. (2017). Global Flood Depth-Damage Functions: Methodology and the Database With Guidelines, Joint Research Centre (Seville Site)."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12163","article-title":"Flood damage curves: New insights from the 2010 flood in Veneto, Italy","volume":"10","author":"Scorzini","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1002\/0470859202.ch50","article-title":"Modelling soil erosion in Europe","volume":"66","author":"Jetten","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soil Eros. Eur."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.1034","article-title":"Surface runoff and soil erosion estimation using the SWAT model in the Keleta watershed, Ethiopia","volume":"22","author":"Tibebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2011.11.003","article-title":"Estimation of soil erosion risk within a small mountainous sub-watershed in Kerala, India, using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and geo-information technology","volume":"3","author":"Prasannakumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.2219","article-title":"Spatial estimation of soil erosion risk by land-cover change in the Andes of southern Ecuador","volume":"26","author":"Fries","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nearing, M., Lane, L.J., and Lopes, V.L. (2017). Modeling soil erosion. Soil Erosion Research Methods, Routledge.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203739358-6"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S1462-9011(02)00125-9","article-title":"Muddy floods on the South Downs, southern England: Problem and responses","volume":"6","author":"Boardman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-10-1697-2010","article-title":"Review article: Assessment of economic flood damage","volume":"10","author":"Merz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Bohner, A., Winter, S., Kraml, B., and Holzner, W. (2013, January 10\u201312). Destructive and constructive effects of mudflows\u2013primary succession and success of pasture regeneration in the nature park S\u00f6lkt\u00e4ler (Styria, Austria). Proceedings of the 5th Symposium for Research in Protected Areas, Mittersill, Austria."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05018005","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001467","article-title":"Hydraulic Thresholds to Mitigate Sedimentation Problems at Sangju Weir, South Korea","volume":"144","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydraul. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2006.02.003","article-title":"Detailed debris flow hazard assessment in Andorra: A multidisciplinary approach","volume":"78","author":"Copons","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2008.04.002","article-title":"A real-world application of Monte Carlo procedure for debris flow risk assessment","volume":"35","author":"Calvo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-11-2047-2011","article-title":"The application of numerical debris flow of modelling for the generation physical vulnerability curves","volume":"11","author":"Blahut","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Du, J., Yin, K., Nadim, F., and Lacasse, S. (2013, January 2\u20136). Quantitative vulnerability estimation for individual landslides. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.03.002","article-title":"Morphometric analysis of debris flows and their source areas using GIS","volume":"129","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9837(199906)24:6<503::AID-ESP972>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"Sediment transport capacity and erosion processes: Model concepts and reality","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2005.07.025","article-title":"Sedimentation in mangroves and coral reefs in a wet tropical island, Pohnpei, Micronesia","volume":"66","author":"Victor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2006.05.011","article-title":"Sedimentation in an estuarine mangrove system","volume":"29","author":"Augustinus","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.18848\/1835-7156\/CGP\/v01i03\/37268","article-title":"Rate of siltation in Wular Lake, (Jammu and Kashmir, India) with special emphasis on its climate & tectonics","volume":"1","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim. Chang. Impacts Responses"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-7-495-2007","article-title":"Towards an empirical vulnerability function for use in debris flow risk assessment","volume":"7","author":"Fuchs","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9623-5","article-title":"A quantitative vulnerability function for fluvial sediment transport","volume":"58","author":"Totschnig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"142","article-title":"Debris-flow risk analysis in a managed torrent based on a stochastic life-cycle performance","volume":"557","author":"Stoffel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-008-0118-3","article-title":"Erosion and morphology of a debris flow caused by a glacial lake outburst flood, Western Norway","volume":"5","author":"Breien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3290200602","article-title":"Floodplain sedimentation: Quantities, patterns and processes","volume":"20","author":"Asselman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.13101\/ijece.9.145","article-title":"Debris flow flooding and debris deposition considering the effect of houses: Disaster verification and numerical simulation","volume":"9","author":"Nakatani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eros. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00e4nsel, P., Kaiser, A., Buchholz, A., B\u00f6ttcher, F., Langel, S., Schmidt, J., and Schindewolf, M. (2018). Mud flow reconstruction by means of physical erosion modeling, high-resolution radar-based precipitation data, and UAV monitoring. Geosciences, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences8110427"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.483","article-title":"Estimation of erosion and deposition volumes in a large, gravel-bed, braided river using synoptic remote sensing","volume":"28","author":"Lane","year":"2003","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1592","article-title":"Application of a 3D laser scanner in the assessment of erosion and deposition volumes and channel change in a proglacial river","volume":"32","author":"Milan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4378","article-title":"Recent remote sensing applications for hydro and morphodynamic monitoring and modelling","volume":"43","author":"Entwistle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S154","DOI":"10.5589\/m09-023","article-title":"Remote predictive mapping of aggregate deposits using lidar","volume":"35","author":"Webster","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2010.08.011","article-title":"Assessing debris flows using LIDAR differencing: 18 May 2005 Matata event, New Zealand","volume":"124","author":"Bull","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2018.11.010","article-title":"Analysing post-earthquake mass movement volume dynamics with multi-source DEMs","volume":"248","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.09.017","article-title":"Geomorphic impact and system recovery following an extreme flood in an upland stream: Thinhope Burn, northern England, UK","volume":"138","author":"Milan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1130\/B31839.1","article-title":"Morphodynamics of bedrock-influenced dryland rivers during extreme floods: Insights from the Kruger National Park, South Africa","volume":"130","author":"Milan","year":"2018","journal-title":"GSA Bull."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2015.09.014","article-title":"Tephra fall clean-up in urban environments","volume":"304","author":"Hayes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(02)00320-3","article-title":"Methodological sensitivity of morphometric estimates of coarse fluvial sediment transport","volume":"53","author":"Brasington","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1011","article-title":"Reach-scale sediment transfers: An evaluation of two morphological budgeting approaches","volume":"28","author":"Fuller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.06.024","article-title":"Influence of survey strategy and interpolation model on DEM quality","volume":"112","author":"Heritage","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1886","article-title":"Accounting for uncertainty in DEMs from repeat topographic surveys: Improved sediment budgets","volume":"35","author":"Wheaton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2010.09.012","article-title":"Filtering spatial error from DEMs: Implications for morphological change estimation","volume":"125","author":"Milan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1163\/157075407780681365","article-title":"A report on the status of the herpetofauna of the Commonwealth of Dominica, West Indies","volume":"4","author":"Malhotra","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Herpetol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5479\/si.00775630.498.1","article-title":"Stony corals and reefs of Dominica","volume":"498","author":"Steiner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atoll Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"31","article-title":"Composition And Short-Timescale Erosion Patterns Of River Sediments On Dominica","volume":"31","year":"2018","journal-title":"Keck Geol. Consort."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7203","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-15-0129.1","article-title":"Global projections of intense tropical cyclone activity for the late twenty-first century from dynamical downscaling of CMIP5\/RCP4. 5 scenarios","volume":"28","author":"Knutson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"YIFRU, J. (2015). National Scale Landslide Hazard Assessment along the Road Corridors of Dominica and Saint Lucia. [Master\u2019s Thesis, ITC, University of Twente]. Available online: http:\/\/www.itc.nl\/library\/papers_2015\/msc\/aes\/yifru.pdf."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Williams, A.N. (2016). Towards a Deeper Understanding of the Caribbean Water Supply Crisis, Caribbean Water Transshipment Company Ltd.. Available online: https:\/\/d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net\/44428169\/Understanding_the_Water_Crisis_in_the_Eastern_Caribbean-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1624247205&Signature=H6xYSDo1xjeTqOXuAjpvHcoKqW42R0Hc8Vld2agmtrExg332ao5tPQgrEe~YvtDxWPSJyPOMdP8UESuU7luYE9P4qU~LB8GJYH-BoSyYxmrtCAaIU7z1uyAgx70fiHUhFJ4NNZm1mkx~zHuM--3Bfigk3d8PRabgBGHX9gScHMiJQUVCeT2COJEO7XWz5HU0EISLQhET0sEnImdLvnwPEbEsIw0BXVTCnoP3rE2W3zCseO-Hxcv8rhAYzJwP~nEVLBw0ay0o2MzqyGksauokDnBmBQ5GHT~CaJadNSXINmndRuXWXufkFPNoSMtdNcyJsYdpmQCsIzHz6lIS-lWEng__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"US Army Corps of Engineers (2004). Water Resources Assessment of Dominica, Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, US Army Corps of Engineers."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica (2021, May 05). Climate Data, Available online: https:\/\/www.weather.gov.dm\/climate\/climate-data."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Van Westen, C., and Zhang, J. (2021, May 05). Tropical Cyclone Maria. Inventory of Landslides and Flooded Areas UNITAR Map Product ID 2018, 2762, Available online: https:\/\/unitar.org\/maps\/map\/2762."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica (2021, May 05). Post-Disaster Needs Assessment Hurricane Maria September 18, 2017, Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/sites\/reliefweb.int\/files\/resources\/dominica-pdna-maria.pdf."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1080\/21664250.2018.1546269","article-title":"Storm wave runups and sea level variations for the September 2017 Hurricane Maria along the coast of Dominica, eastern Caribbean sea: Evidence from field surveys and sea-level data analysis","volume":"60","author":"Heidarzadeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coast. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"UK Research and Innovation (2021, May 05). Hurricane Maria and Dominica: Geomorphological Change and Infrastructure Damage Baseline Surveys, with Verification af Mapping From Satellite Imagery. Available online: https:\/\/gtr.ukri.org\/projects?ref=NE%2FR016968%2F1."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Commonwealth of Dominica (2017). Managementof Post-Hurricane Disaster Waste."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Inserra, D., Bogie, J., Katz, D., Furth, S., Burke, M., Tubb, K., Loris, N.D., and Bucci, S.P. (2018). After the Storms: Lessons from Hurricane Response and Recovery in 2017, Heritage Foundation."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Zekkos, D., Manousakis, J., and Clark, M. (2018). Digital Surface Model Creation of Select Floodplains in Dominica, University of Michigan."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-03893-1","article-title":"Low-cost UAV surveys of hurricane damage in Dominica: Automated processing with co-registration of pre-hurricane imagery for change analysis","volume":"101","author":"Schaefer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"McElhanney Consulting Services Ltd (2018). Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) Bathymetry and Topography Survey, Data Analysis, Modeling and Development of High Accuracy Terrain and Bathymetric Models, McElhanney Consulting Services Ltd."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5107","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7148","article-title":"Evaluating the effect of scale in flood inundation modelling in urban environments","volume":"22","author":"Fewtrell","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2389.1980.tb02084.x","article-title":"Optimal interpolation and isarithmic mapping of soil properties: I the semi-variogram and punctual kriging","volume":"31","author":"Burgess","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.1996.tb00032.x","article-title":"Integrating dynamic environmental models in GIS: The development of a Dynamic Modelling language","volume":"1","author":"Wesselung","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2009.10.004","article-title":"A software framework for construction of process-based stochastic spatio-temporal models and data assimilation","volume":"25","author":"Karssenberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Esri (2021, May 05). How Trend Works. Available online: https:\/\/desktop.arcgis.com\/en\/arcmap\/10.3\/tools\/spatial-analyst-toolbox\/how-trend-works.htm."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1130\/REG7-p1","article-title":"A rheologic classification of subaerial sediment-water flows","volume":"7","author":"Pierson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Rev. Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinsen, O. (1994). Mass Movements. The Geological Deformation of Sediments, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-0731-0_5"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(00)00079-5","article-title":"Suspended sediment load during floods in a small stream of the Dolomites (northeastern Italy)","volume":"39","author":"Lenzi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-731-2012","article-title":"Sediment budget monitoring of debris-flow and bedload transport in the Manival Torrent, SE France","volume":"12","author":"Theule","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"133","article-title":"A comparative analysis of different DEM interpolation methods","volume":"16","author":"Arun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1897","article-title":"Empirical prediction of debris-flow mobility and deposition on fans","volume":"35","author":"Scheidl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf. J. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.01.172","article-title":"Rare flash floods and debris flows in southern Germany","volume":"626","author":"Ozturk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/12\/2391\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:18:45Z","timestamp":1760163525000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/12\/2391"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13122391"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13122391","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]]}}}