{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T07:33:34Z","timestamp":1774510414278,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]],"date-time":"2021-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31870531"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31870531"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Water use efficiency (WUE) is a key index for understanding the ecosystem of carbon\u2013water coupling. The undistinguishable carbon\u2013water coupling mechanism and uncertainties of indirect methods by remote sensing products and process models render challenges for WUE remote sensing. In this paper, current progress in direct and indirect methods of WUE estimation by remote sensing is reviewed. Indirect methods based on gross primary production (GPP)\/evapotranspiration (ET) from ground observation, processed models and remote sensing are the main ways to estimate WUE in which carbon and water cycles are independent processes. Various empirical models based on meteorological variables and remote sensed vegetation indices to estimate WUE proved the ability of remotely sensed data for WUE estimating. The analytical model provides a mechanistic opportunity for WUE estimation on an ecosystem scale, while the hypothesis has yet to be validated and applied for the shorter time scales. An optimized response of canopy conductance to atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD) in an analytical model inverted from the conductance model has been also challenged. Partitioning transpiration (T) and evaporation (E) is a more complex phenomenon than that stated in the analytic model and needs a more precise remote sensing retrieval algorithm as well as ground validation, which is an opportunity for remote sensing to extrapolate WUE estimation from sites to a regional scale. Although studies on controlling the mechanism of environmental factors have provided an opportunity to improve WUE remote sensing, the mismatch in the spatial and temporal resolution of meteorological products and remote sensing data, as well as the uncertainty of meteorological reanalysis data, add further challenges. Therefore, improving the remote sensing-based methods of GPP and ET, developing high-quality meteorological forcing datasets and building mechanistic remote sensing models directly acting on carbon\u2013water cycle coupling are possible ways to improve WUE remote sensing. Improvement in direct WUE remote sensing methods or remote sensing-driven ecosystem analysis methods can promote a better understanding of the global ecosystem carbon\u2013water coupling mechanisms and vegetation functions\u2013climate feedbacks to serve for the future global carbon neutrality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13122393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]],"date-time":"2021-06-18T11:19:20Z","timestamp":1624015160000},"page":"2393","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Remote Sensing of Ecosystem Water Use Efficiency: A Review of Direct and Indirect Estimation Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7007-8239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wanyuan","family":"Cai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Lab of Spatial Information Integration and 3S Application, Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4379-1426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sana","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Lab of Spatial Information Integration and 3S Application, Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Lab of Spatial Information Integration and 3S Application, Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3396-3327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yi","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Lab of Spatial Information Integration and 3S Application, Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GB005733","article-title":"Response of Water Use Efficiency to Global Environmental Change Based on Output from Terrestrial Biosphere Models","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. 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