{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T15:35:36Z","timestamp":1760369736096,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]],"date-time":"2021-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["315699\/2020-5","423481\/2018-5","304413\/2018-6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["315699\/2020-5","423481\/2018-5","304413\/2018-6"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional forest restoration (FR) monitoring methods employ spreadsheets and photos taken at the ground level. Since remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) generate a panoramic high resolution and georeferenced view of the entire area of interest, this technology has high potential to improve the traditional FR monitoring methods. This study evaluates how low-cost RPA data may contribute to FR monitoring of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest by the automatic remote measurement of Tree Density, Tree Height, Vegetation Cover (area covered by trees), and Grass Infestation. The point cloud data was processed to map the Tree Density, Tree Height, and Vegetation Cover parameters. The orthomosaic was used for a Random Forest classification that considered trees and grasses as a single land cover class. The Grass Infestation parameter was mapped by the difference between this land cover class (which considered trees and grasses) and the Vegetation Cover results (obtained by the point cloud data processing). Tree Density, Vegetation Cover, and Grass Infestation parameters presented F_scores of 0.92, 0.85, and 0.64, respectively. Tree Height accuracy was indicated by the Error Percentage considering the traditional fieldwork and the RPA results. The Error Percentage was equal to 0.13 and was considered accurate because it estimated a 13% shorter height for trees that averaged 1.93 m tall. Thus, this study showed that the FR structural parameters were accurately measured by the low-cost RPA, a technology that contributes to FR monitoring. Despite accurately measuring the structural parameters, this study reinforced the challenge of measuring the Biodiversity parameter via remote sensing because the classification of tree species was not possible. After all, the Brazilian Atlantic Forest is a biodiversity hotspot, and thus different species have similar spectral responses in the visible spectrum and similar geometric forms. Therefore, until improved automatic classification methods become available for tree species, traditional fieldwork remains necessary for a complete FR monitoring diagnostic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13122401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]],"date-time":"2021-06-20T21:50:15Z","timestamp":1624225815000},"page":"2401","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Forest Restoration Monitoring Protocol with a Low-Cost Remotely Piloted Aircraft: Lessons Learned from a Case Study in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4294-5876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael Walter","family":"Albuquerque","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Energy and Environment, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Prof. Luciano Gualberto Avenue, 1289, Butanta 05508-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4516-6373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel Eduardo","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudos Socioambientais\u2014IESA, Laborat\u00f3rio de Processamento de Imagens e Geoprocessamento\u2014LAPIG\/Pro-Vant, Universidade Federal de Goi\u00e1s\u2014UFG, Campus II, Cx. Postal 131, Goi\u00e2nia 74001-970, GO, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4466-1914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00f8ren Ingvor","family":"Olsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science (DIKU), University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 1, 2100 \u00d8 Copenhagen, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7510-0143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julio Ricardo Caetano","family":"Tymus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Nature Conservancy Brasil\u2014TNC, Av. Paulista, 2439\/91, Bela Vista 01311-300, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4772-0390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cintia Palheta","family":"Balieiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Nature Conservancy Brasil\u2014TNC, Av. Paulista, 2439\/91, Bela Vista 01311-300, SP, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Hendrik","family":"Mansur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Nature Conservancy Brasil\u2014TNC, Av. Paulista, 2439\/91, Bela Vista 01311-300, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0289-1057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ciro Jos\u00e9 Ribeiro","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Engenharia Ambiental, Av. Athos da Silveira Ramos, 149, Ilha do Fund\u00e3o, Centro de Tecnologia\u2014Bloco A, 2\u00ba andar, Sala DAPG\u2014Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Escola Polit\u00e9cnica 21941-909, RJ, Brazil"},{"name":"Instituto Estadual do Ambiente\u2014INEA, Av. Venezuela, 110, Sa\u00fade 20081-312, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0765-3701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Vitor Silva","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Estudos Socioambientais\u2014IESA, Laborat\u00f3rio de Processamento de Imagens e Geoprocessamento\u2014LAPIG\/Pro-Vant, Universidade Federal de Goi\u00e1s\u2014UFG, Campus II, Cx. Postal 131, Goi\u00e2nia 74001-970, GO, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Maur\u00edcio Ruiz Castello","family":"Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Terra de Preserva\u00e7\u00e3o Ambiental\u2014ITPA, Rua Francisco Alves, 53, Miguel Pereira 26900-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5073-5572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos Henrique","family":"Grohmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Energy and Environment, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Prof. Luciano Gualberto Avenue, 1289, Butanta 05508-010, SP, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"634","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Opportunities, barriers, and the future of \u201cdrone journalism\u201d","volume":"9","author":"Holton","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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