{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:07:41Z","timestamp":1760234861707,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,2]],"date-time":"2021-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, we study the impact of high-energy radiation induced by solar X-ray flares on the determination of the temporal change in precipitable water vapor (\u0394PWV) as estimated using the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) meteorology technique. As recent research shows, this radiation can significantly affect the ionospheric D-region and induces errors in the estimation of the total electron content (TEC) by the applied models. Consequently, these errors are reflected in the determination of the phase delay and in many different types of measurements and models, including calculations of meteorological parameters based on SAR observations. The goal of this study is to quantify the impact of solar X-ray flares on the estimation of \u0394PWV and provide an estimate of errors induced if the vertical total electron content (VTEC) is obtained by single layer models (SLM) or multiple layer models (MLM) (these models do not include ionosphere properties below the altitude of 90 km as input parameters and cannot provide information about local disturbances in the D-region). The performed analysis is based on a known procedure for the determination of the D-region electron density (and, consequently, the vertical total electron content in the D-region (VTECD)) using ionospheric observations by very low frequency (VLF) radio waves. The main result indicates that if the D-region, perturbed by medium-sized and intense X-ray flares, is not modeled, errors occur in the determination of \u0394PWV. This study emphasizes the need for improved MLMs for the estimation of the TEC, including observational data at D-region altitudes during medium-sized and intense X-ray flare events.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13132609","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,4]],"date-time":"2021-07-04T22:35:22Z","timestamp":1625438122000},"page":"2609","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Influence of Solar X-ray Flares on SAR Meteorology: The Determination of the Wet Component of the Tropospheric Phase Delay and Precipitable Water Vapor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0462-8383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Nina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Physics Belgrade, University of Belgrade, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jelena","family":"Radovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 3, 12116 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7621-5014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Nico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto per le Applicazioni del Calcolo (IAC), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Cartography and Geoinformatics, Institute of Earth Sciences, Saint Petersburg State University (SPSU), 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2398-7664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luka \u010c.","family":"Popovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Astronomical Observatory, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Astronomy, Faculty of Mathematics, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Science, University of Banja Luka, 78000 Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9702-3879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milan","family":"Radovanovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geographical Institute \u201cJovan Cviji\u0107\u201d SASA, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Institute of Sports, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2584-8481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pier Francesco","family":"Biagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physics Department, Universit\u00e0 di Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9082-3921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dejan","family":"Vinkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Society Synergy Institute, B.J. 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